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MOVING     PICTURES 

HOW  THEY  ARE  MADE  AND  WORKED 


CONQUESTS  OF  SCIENCE 

Uniform   with   this    Volume. 


BY    FREDERICK   A.    TALBOT 

THE   OIL   CONQUEST  OF   THE 
WORLD 

LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

THE    RAILWAY   CONQUEST   OF 
THE    WORLD 

STEAMSHIP   CONQUEST   OF  THE 
WORLD 

Philadelphia:  J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 
London  ■    WILLIAM  HEINEMANN 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


GIFT  OF 

JAMES  A.    PARIS 


Frontispiece. 


TRICK    CINEMATOGRAPHY-     THE   AUTOMOBILE    ACCIDENT. 

,,„.  producei   giving  in  tructioi  5  to  the  principal  actor  and  his  double,  the  legless  cripple. 
ninny  legs  in  the  foreground.  -Set  pa 


CONQUESTS   OF  SCIENCE 


MOVING    PICTURES 

HOW  THEY  ARE  MADE  AND  WORKED 


BY 

FREDERICK    A.    TALBOT 


NEW    EDITION 


ILLUSTRATED 


Philadelphia:    J.    B.    LIPPINCOTT    COMPANY 

London:    WILLIAM    HEINEMANN 

1914 


First  Printed^  January,   1912 

Revised  Edition,   December,   1913 

New  Edition,  November,  19 14 


/  '>  in  ted  in  Bug  in  11 1  i. 


Theatre  Arts 
Library 


PREFACE 

The  marvellous,  universal  popularity  of  moving  pictures 
is  my  reason  for  writing  this  volume.  A  vast  industry  has 
been  established  of  which  the  great  majority  of  picture- 
palace  patrons  have  no  idea,  and  the  moment  appears 
timely  to  describe  the  many  branches  of  the  art. 

I  have  endeavoured  to  deal  with  the  whole  subject  in  a 
popular  and  comprehensive  manner.  I  have  been  assisted 
by  several  friends,  who  have  enabled  me  to  throw  con- 
siderable light  upon  the  early  history  of  motion  photo- 
graphy and  the  many  problems  that  had  to  be  mastered 
before  it  met  with  public  appreciation  : — MM.  Weiss  and 
Bull,  the  Director  and  Assistant-Director  respectively  of 
the  Marey  Institute  in  Paris;  M.  Georges  Demeny ; 
Messrs.  Frank  L.  Dyer,  the  President  of  Thomas  A. 
Edison,  Incorporated;  W.  F.  Greene,  Robert  W.  Paul, 
James  Williamson,  Lumiere  &  Sons,  Richard  G.  Holla- 
man,  the  Eastman  Kodak  Company,  Dr.  J.  Comandon, 
F.  Percy  Smith,  Albert  Smith,  and  the  numerous  firms 
engaged  in  one  or  other  of  the  various  branches  of  the 
industry. 

I  am  indebted  especially  to  the  editor  of  L' Illustration, 
the  well-known  Parisian  illustrated  weekly  newspaper,  in 
conjunction  with  the  Societe  des  Etablissemenis  Gaumont, 
for  permission  to  publish  the  photographs  illustrating 
Chapters  XIX.,  XX.,  and  XXI.,  as  well  as  the  frontis- 


vii.  PREFACE 

piece;  also  to  Mr.  A.  A.  Hopkins,  the  author  of 
"Magic,"  and  to  Messrs.  Munn  &  Co.,  the  proprietors  of 
The  Scientific  American,  of  New  York,  U.S.A. 

The  book  makes  no  claim  to  being  a  practical  manual, 
because  thereby  intricate  technicalities  would  have  been 
unavoidable.  The  information  respecting  the  various 
mechanical  aspects  of  cinematography  are  set  forth  in  a 
readable  manner,  so  that  the  broad  principles  may  be 
understood. 

While  the  most  popular  features  of  motion  photography 
are  described  fully,  I  have  not  omitted  to  introduce  the 
reader  to  the  educational  and  scientific  developments, 
which  are  more  wonderful  and  fascinating.  Indeed, 
the  cinematograph  will  probably  achieve  greater  triumphs 
in  these  fields  than  it  has  accomplished  already  as  a  source 
of  amusement. 

FREDERICK  A.    TALBOT. 


CONTENTS 


CHATTER 

I.      WHAT   IS   ANIMATED   PHOTOGRAPHY  ? 
II.      THE   FIRST  ATTEMPTS   TO   PRODUCE   MOVING    PICTURES 

III.  THE   SEARCH    FOR   THE  CELLULOID    FILM  . 

IV.  THE   KINETOSCOPE  :    THE  ANIMATOGRAPH  :    THE   CINE 

MATOGRAPHE     ..... 

V.      HOW  THE  CELLULOID    FILM    IS   MADE 

VI.      THE  STORY   OF  THE   PERFORATION   GAUGE 

VII.      THE    MOVING    PICTURE    CAMERA,     ITS     CONSTRUCTION 
AND   OPERATION      ..... 

VIII.      DEVELOPING   AND    PRINTING   THE   PICTURES 

IX.      HOW   THE   PICTURES   ARE  SHOWN   UPON   THE   SCREEN 

X.      THE   STUDIO   FOR   STAGING   MOVING  PICTURE   PLAYS 

XL      THE    CINEMATOGRAPH     AS     A     RECORDER    OF    TOPICAI 
EVENTS  :   SCENIC   FILMS    .... 

XII.      THE    CINEMATOGRAPH    THEATRE    AND    ITS    EQUIPMENT 

XIII.  HOW   A   CINEMATOGRAPH    PLAY   IS   PRODUCED       . 

XIV.  MOVING   PICTURES   OF   MICROBES       . 

XV.      SOME     ELABORATE     PICTURE     PLAYS     AND     HOW     THEY 
WERE   STAGED  ..... 

XVI.      PICTURES   THAT   MOVE,    TALK,   AND   SING   . 

XVII.      POPULAR    SCIENCE   AS    REVEALED     BY    THE    CINEMATO 
GRAPH  ...... 

XVIII.  TRICK  PICTURES  AND  HOW  THEY  ARE  PRODUCED. — 
I.  THE  FIRST  ATTEMPTS  AT  CINEMATOGRAPH 
MAGIC   AND   THE    ARTIFICES    ADOPTED 


r.Mjfc 

I 


3° 
50 

57 

65 

76 

88 

103 

116 
130 
146 
161 

169 
179 

190 
•97 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTEK 
XIX. 


XX. 


XXI. 


XXII. 

XXIII. 

XXIV. 

XXV. 

XXVI. 

XXVII. 

XXVIII. 

XXIX. 


TRICK      PICTURES     AND     HOW    THEY     ARE    PRODUCED. — 

II.  DANCING  FURNITURE  :  STRINGS,  CORDS,  AND 
WIRES  :  "THE  MAGNETIC  GENTLEMAN  "  :  THE  "STOP 
AND  SUBSTITUTION "  :  "  THE  AUTOMOBILE  ACCI- 
DENT "  :    REVERSAL  OK   ACTION 

TRICK     PICTURES    AND     HOW   THEY    ARE    PRODUCED.— 

III.  MANIPULATION  OF  THE  FILM  :  APPARITIONS 
AND  GRADUAL  DISAPPEARANCES  BY  OPENING  AND 
CLOSING  THE  DIAPHRAGM  OF  THE  LENS  SLOWLY  : 
"THE  SIREN":     SUBMARINE   EFFECTS 

TRICK   PICTURES    AND     HOW    THEY    ARE    PRODUCED. — 

IV.  LILLIPUTIAN  FIGURES  :  "THE  LITTLE  MILLINER'S 
DREAM"  :  THE  "ONE  TURN  ONE  PICTURE"  MOVE- 
MENT: HOW  SOME  EXTRAORDINARY  INCIDENTS 
ARE   PRODUCED   :    "THE   SKI    RUNNER" 

TRICK    PICTURES    AND    HOW    THEY    ARE     PRODUCED. — 

V.  "PRINCESS  NICOTINE"  AND  HER  REMARKABLE 
CAPRICES       ....... 

TRICK    PICTURES    AND    HOW    THEY    ARE    PRODUCED. — 

VI.  SOME   UNUSUAL   AND   NOVEL   EFFECTS 

ELECTRIC  SPARK   CINEMATOGRAPHY 
THE  "ANIMATED"   NEWSPAPER 
ANIMATION   IN   NATURAL   COLOURS 
MOVING   PICTURES    IN   THE   HOME    . 

MOTION-PHOTOGRAPHY  AS   AN   EDUCATIONAL   FORCE 
RECENT     DEVELOPMENTS  :     THE     GROWTH    AND    POPU 


207 


218 


LARITY      OF      THE    CINEMATOGRAPH 
AND    FIGURES  :     CONCLUSION 


SOME    FACTS 


242 

264 
277 
287 

301 
312 

3i9 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


Trick  Cinematography — The  Automobile  Accident  .  Frontispiece 
Dr.  E.  J.  Marey's  Famous  Experiments—  Photographic  Gun  of  1882 
Consecutive  Pictures  of  a  Gull  Flying,  taken  with  the  Photographic 

Gun       .... 
Chronophotographic    Apparatus    for    taking    Consecutive  Pictures 

upon  a  Single  Glass  Plate     . 
Dr.  Marey's  Animated  Pictures  made  in  1884-6  for  the  Analysis  of 

Motion  ...... 

Edison's  First  Kinetoscope 

Edison  Film  made  about  1891  for  the  Kinetoscope 

Edison  Film  made  in  191 1  for  the  Cinematograph 

Paul's  Camera  showing  Mechanism  for  moving   the   Film  inter 

mittently  past  the  Lens         ..... 
The  First  Kinetoscope  Film  made  in  England 
The  "  Black  Maria,"  the  First  Edison  Studio  for  making  Kineto 

scope  Films 
The  Dissolving  Room 
The  Mixing  Barrel 
A  Battery  of  Celluloid  Mixers 
The  Liquid  Celluloid  Storage  Room 
Paul's  Rotary  Perforator    . 
The  First  Cinematograph  Studio-Stage 
The  Williamson  Film  Perforator 

The  Perforating  Room  of  the  Cines  Company  in  Rome 
The  Film-moving  Mechanism  of  a  Cinematograph  Camera 
Paul's  Complete  Developing,  Printing,  and  Drying  Outfit 
The  First  Developing   Room  in   Great  Britain,  at  Robert  Paul's 

Pioneer  Film  Factory 
After  Development  and  Washing  the  Films  were  transferred  from 

the  Racks  to  the  Cylinders  ..... 
The  Drying  Room,  showing  Films  wound  on  the  Drying  Drums 


To  face  fage 
16 
16 

[6 


17 
32 
33 
33 

36 
36 

37 
52 
53 
54 
55 
60 
60 
61 
66 

67 
70 

7o 

7i 

7' 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 


Works  of  the  Cines 


The  Developing  Room  at  the  Pathe  Works 

The  Drying  Room  at  the  Pathe  Works 

A  Row  of  Printing   Machines  in  the  Rome 

Company  .... 

The  Williamson  Printing  Machine 
The  Projector  and  Mechanism    . 
The  Complete  Projecting  Installation 
The  "  Chrono  "  Projector  . 
Outstripping  the  Human  Eye 
An  Early  Open-Air  Studio-Stage  for  producing   Cinematograph 

Plays     

The  Scene-Painters'  Shop  at  a  Pathe  Studio 

Battle  Scene  from  "The  Siege  of  Calais  " 

Exterior  of  the  Modern  Edison  Film-Play-Producing  Theatre 

Building  a  Solid  Set  for  "The  Two  Orphans  " 

Building  a  Scene  on  one  of  the   Pathe  Studio-Stages  for  a  Film 

Play       .  

The  Wardrobe  Room  at  the  Selig  Film  Factory 

The  Selig  Stock  Company  at  Los  Angeles 

The  First  Topical  Film      ..... 

The  Fall  from  the  Balloon  .... 

The  Luxury  of  the  Modern  Picture  Palace 

The  Lantern  Room  of  a  Modern  Cinematograph  Theatre 

The  Trial  Scene  from  "  Rachel's  Sin  " 

How  the  Sound  Accompaniments  to  Pictures  are  Produced 

The  Film-Play  Producer  at  Work 

Taking  Three  Picture-Plays  Simultaneously 

The  Fight  for  the  Boats  in  "  Atlantis''  . 

"Sauve  qui  peut"  at  the  Wreck  of  the  Liner    . 

The  Sinking  of  the  Liner  "  Roland  "      . 

Sorting,  Examining,  and  Joining  the  Strips  of  Film 

Preparing  the  Titles  ..... 

Dr.     Comandon's     Apparatus     for    taking     Moving 

Microbes  ........ 

The  Phenomenon  of  Agglutination  in  a  Fowl's  Blood 

The  Blood  of  a  Fowl  suffering  from  Spirochata  Gallinarum 

A  Triumph  of  the  Cinematographers  Art 

The  Gigantic  Horse  being  Hauled  by  the  Greeks  under  the  Walls 

of  Troy  ....  .  .  . 

"  The  Fall  of  Troy  ...  .  .  . 

The  "  Battle  of  Waterloo  '  upon  the  Film         . 


To /ace  page 

73 


Pictures    of 


164 
.65 
.65 

172 

173 
.76 


LIST   OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


Xlll 


Building  the  Scenery  for  the  Film  Performance  of  "  Hamle 

The  Ghost  Scene  from  "  Hamlet "... 

Nature  and  the  Cinematographer — Mr.  Percy  Smith  at  Wot 

Fly  Seated  in  a  Diminutive  Chair  Balancing  a  Cork 

An  Unfamiliar  Juggler — Bluebottle  Balancing  a  Piece  of  Vegetable 

Stalk 

Fly  Lying  on  its  Back  Spinning  a  Wheel 

Juggling  Flies  ..... 

The  Fly  Walking  Up  the  Turning  Wheel 

The  Life  of  the  Butterfly  . 

The  Magic  Sword  :  A  Mediaeval  Mystery  Explained 

A  Christmas  Carol :  How  Scrooge  saw  Bob  Cratchit's  Home 

"  Ora  Pro  Nobis,"  and  How  it  was  Produced   . 

The  Secret  of  the  Haunted  Curiosity  Shop 

Motoring  Round  the  Ring  of  Saturn 

The  Car  Circling  the  Sun  .... 

The  Animated  Swords       ..... 

The  Travelling  Bed  ..... 

The  Magnetic  Gentleman  .... 

The  Pursuing  Man-hole  Cover  is  a  Wooden  Property 

The  Lamp-Post  is  a  Stage  Article  Hinged  in  the  Centre 

The    Trick     Picture— The    Automobile    Accident :     The     Actor 

being    replaced    by   the    Legless    Cripple    with   the    Dummy 

Legs      .  .  

The  Taxi-cab  Running  over  the  Sleeper  and  Apparently  Cutting  off 

his    Legs,   but    in    Reality    Displacing  the    Legless  Cripple' 

Property  Limbs  ...... 

Observing   the  Effects  of  the    Disaster,  the    Doctor  Proceeds  to 

Replace  the  Severed  Legs  ..... 
The  Limbs  Replaced,  the  Patient  and  Doctor  Shake  Hands 
The  Roysterer,  after  being  run  over  by  the  Taxi-cab,  Sitting 

and  Brandishing  his  Severed  Limbs 
The  Legless  Cripple  being  Prepared  for  the  Act 
The  Fountain  of  Youth      ...... 

Pumpkins  Running  Up-hill  .  .  .  . 

The  Revolving  Table         .  ... 

The  Secret  of  the  Fairy's  Disappearance  :  While  a  Length  of  Film 

is  being  exposed  the  Diaphragm  is  closed  slowly 
The  same  Length  of  Film  is  re-exposed  after  the  Fairy  has  entered 

the  Picture,  under  a  slowly  opening  Diaphragm  . 
The    Effect    of    Double    Exposure    under    closing   and   openin 

Diaphragm       ..... 


To  face  Page 
177 
177 
192 
193 


193 
194 
194 
194 

195 
200 
20I 
202 
203 
204 
204 
205 
20S 
209 
2IO 
2IO 


212 

213 
213 

214 
214 
215 
215 
220 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 


To/.n 

The  Mystery  of  "  The  Siren  "      .  ... 

The  Mystery  of  "  The  Siren"  revealed  .... 

A  Workshop  in  which  Tools  move  without  Hands 

The  Skater  approaching  the  Factory  Chimney 

The  Result  of  the  Collision  with  the  Chimney 

The  Ski-runner  Disappears  into  Space  .... 

Princess  Nicotine — A  Dainty  Trick  Film 

The  Fairy,  Buried  in  the  Heart  of  the  Rose,  Smoking  a  Cigarette 

The  Diminutive  Form  of  the  Fairy  on  the  Table 

The  Fairy  Imprisoned  in  the  Bottle.     This  effect  is  obtained  by 

double  exposure  ...... 

The  Fairy,  after  Coquetting  with  the  Bachelor,  is  driven  away  by 

the  Smoke  from  his  Cigarette  .... 

The  Fairy  proceeds  to  Build  a  Bonfire  with  Matches 
The  Fairy,  her  Accomplice,  and   Properties,  which  are  Enlarged 

Reproductions  of  the  Actual  Articles 
The  Dissolution  of  the  Government       .... 
The   Latest   Craze   in   Trick   Cinematography :    Silhouettes   with 

Models  ........ 

A  Quaint  Advertisement  Film      ..... 

Mr.  Asquith  in  Cartoon      ...... 

A  Novel  Curtain  Idea        ...... 

The  Human  Butterfly  :  How  are  the  Effects  Obtained  ? 
M.  Lucien  Bull's  Complete  Apparatus    .... 

The  Novel  Camera  showing  Stereoscopic  Lens 

A  Bee  Cinematographed  in  Full  Flight 

A  Dragon  Fly  in  Flight     ...... 

Cinematograph  Film  of  a  Bullet  Fired  through  a  Soap  Bubble 
Preparing  the  Pathe-  Colour  Films  .... 

The  Pathe  Colour  Machine-Printing  Room 

The  Kinora  Camera  ...... 

The  Mechanism  of  the  Kinora  Camera  showing  Paper    Negath 

Film  in  position  ...... 

The  Reel  of  Positive  Prints  ..... 

The  Kinora  Reproduction  Instrument     .... 

The  Bettini  Glass  Plate  Cinematograph 

A  Section  of  a  Bettini  Glass  Plate  Record    . 

The  Birth  of  a  Flower        ...... 

Waging  a  Health  Campaign  by  Moving  Pictures 

Cinematographing  Africa  from  a  Locomotive    . 

Mount  Etna  in  Eruption  :  Looking  into  the  Crater  of  the  Volcano 


c  page 
226 


LIST    OF   ILLUSTRATIONS  xv 

To  /ace  page 

The  Plumes  of  Smoke  as  seen  from  the  Observatory  .  .315 

The  "  Cradle  of  Cinematography"  :  The  Marey  Institute  in  Paris  .  322 
The  latest  marvel  in  Moving  Pictures  :  Combining  the  X-rays  with 

the  Cinematograph      .......      322 

After  Fifty  Years.    This  Film  won  the  First  Prize  of  25,000  Francs 

at  the  recent  Turin  Exhibition         .....      323 


CHAPTER  I 

WHAT    IS    ANIMATED    PHOTOGRAPHY? 

From  the  day  when  it  was  found  possible  (by  the  aid  of 
sunlight)  to  fix  a  permanent  image  of  an  object  upon  a 
sensitised  surface,  inventors  steadily  applied  their  ingenuity 
to  the  problem  of  instantaneous  photography.  In  other 
words,  they  strove  to  realise  the  possibility  of  photograph- 
ing an  object  in  motion. 

In  our  days  the  idea  of  "snapshot  "  photography  is  such 
a  commonplace  that  we  can  no  longer  realise  the  propor- 
tions of  the  task  which  confronted  the  early  inventors. 
Probably  most  of  us  are  unacquainted  with  the  conditions 
under  which  the  first  photographs  were  taken.  The  writer 
has  often  heard  a  member  of  his  family  relate  the  amusing 
story  of  an  ordeal  which,  as  a  lad,  the  latter  underwent 
at  the  hands  of  the  Frenchman,  Daguerre.  He  was  seized 
upon  by  the  inventor  as  an  experimental  subject  and 
was  forced  to  sit  in  the  brilliant  sunlight  for  a  long  time. 
It  seems  incredible,  but  it  is  true,  that  when  photography 
was  in  its  infancy,  an  exposure  of  six  hours  was  required 
to  secure  a  recognisable  impression  of  an  object — a  circum- 
stance which  left  practically  nothing  but  still  life  as  feasible 
subjects  for  photography. 

The  problem  which  confronted  the  pioneers  of  instan- 
taneous photography  was  the  reduction  of  the  period  of 
exposure  from  about  20,000  seconds  to  a  mere  fraction  of 
a  second.  Considering  the  magnitude  of  this  difficulty, 
it  is  not  surprising  that  the  average  person  was  sceptical 
as  to  its  solution.  The  possibility  of  fixing  a  horse  in 
the  act  of  jumping,   a  bird   in   the   act   of  flying,    or   an 

B 


2  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

orator's  lips  at  the  moment  of  uttering  a  word,  must  have 
seemed  nearly  as  remote  as  the  discovery  of  the 
Philosopher's  Stone.  It  is  interesting  to  imagine  the 
sensations  of  the  sceptic  of  one  hundred  years  ago,  to  whom 
instantaneous  photography  appeared  a  chimerical  idea, 
should  he  be  recalled  to  life  to-day  and  be  shown  first  a  pro- 
cession passing  down  the  street,  and  a  few  hours  afterward 
the  same  procession  repeating  itself  before  his  eyes  upon 
a  screen  in  a  darkened  room,  with  all  the  semblance  of 
reality  in  colour  and  animation. 

In  the  end,  it  was  the  chemist  who  solved  the  problem 
of  instantaneous  photography,  without  which  animated 
photography  as  we  know  it  to-day  would  never  have  been 
even  conceivable.  He  carried  out  innumerable  laboratory 
experiments  for  the  purpose  of  rendering  the  sensitised 
surface  more  and  more  susceptible  to  light — accelerating 
its  actinic  speed,  as  it  is  called — until  at  last  he  revolu- 
tionised photography,  as  he  has  changed  nearly  every 
other  field  of  our  modern  industrial  life.  He  suc- 
ceeded in  preparing  a  surface,  or  emulsion,  so  sensitive  to 
light  that  it  can  take  a  picture  clear,  distinct,  and  full  of 
detail,  not  merely  in  the  space  of  one  second,  but  in  less 
than  a  thousandth  part  of  a  second — a  picture  equal,  if  not 
superior,  to  those  which  in  the  early  days  of  photography 
required  an  exposure  20,000,000  times  as  long  ! 

The  wonderful  achievement  of  instantaneous  photo- 
graphy assumed  at  first  a  scientific  rather  than  a  commercial 
value.  Many  a  "snap-shot"  is  taken  which  does  not 
betray  whether  the  plate  has  been  exposed  for  six  hours 
or  only  one-thousandth  of  a  second;  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  a  "snap-shot"  of  a  quickly  moving  subject  may 
seize  upon  and  fix  an  interesting  or  characteristic  motion. 
It  was  this  fact  which  led  certain  ingenious  minds  to 
perceive  in  instantaneous  photography  a  valuable  means 
of  analysing  motion.  If  a  single  photograph  reproduced 
the  exact  posture  of  a  moving  subject  at  any  given  instant 
of  time,  they  argued  that  a  series  of  such  photographs,  if 
taken  in  sufficiently  rapid  succession,  would  form  a  com- 
plete  record  of  the  whole  cycle  of  movements   involved, 


i  WHAT   IS   ANIMATED    PHOTOGRAPHY?         3 

for  instance,  in  the  jump  of  a  horse  or  the  flap  of  a  bird's 
wing. 

Here,  again,  the  inventor  encountered  a  difficulty  almost 
as  great  as  the  initial  one  of  instantaneous  photography. 
Not  only  had  the  chemist  to  devise  a  new  sort  of  sensitised 
plate  with  a  gelatine  coating  better  and  more  convenient 
to  handle  than  the  medium  before  employed,  but  the 
mechanical  engineer,  the  optical  instrument  maker,  and 
the  lens  maker  had  to  co-operate  on  a  special  sort  of  camera 
which  should  minimise  the  interval  between  successive 
exposures. 

As  earlier  inventors  had  reduced  the  duration  of  the 
period  of  exposure,  modern  ones  have  succeeded  in  their 
turn  in  reducing  the  interval  between  exposures  to  a  minute 
fraction  of  a  second.  When  this  result  was  achieved 
animated  photography  became  a  reality. 

It  was  possible  to  secure  a  long  series  of  consecutive 
snap-shots,  or  instantaneous  pictures  depicting  motion, 
recorded  at  such  brief  intervals  that  when  they  were  passed 
swiftly  before  the  eyes  they  produced  the  illusion  of  move- 
ment. 

At  this  point  it  is  best  to  consider  the  physiological  basis 
upon  which  animated  photography  rests.  The  word 
illusion,  as  used  above,  correctly  describes  what  takes 
place.  The  eye  sees  a  swift  succession  of  instantaneous 
photographs;  but  it  is  deluded  into  believing  that  it  sees 
actual  movement. 

We  have  all  marvelled  at  the  magician  who  causes 
bottles,  eggs,  birds,  and  animals  to  appear  and  disappear 
mysteriously  before  our  very  eyes.  We  know  that  it  is 
trickery,  pure  and  simple  :  that  the  eye  is  being  deceived. 
The  camera  is  a  far  more  perfect  trickster  than  the  most 
accomplished  illusionist  that  has  ever  lived,  and  moving 
pictures  are  the  most  cunning  illusion  that  has  ever  been 
devised. 

In  order  to  convey  this  delusion,  the  photographer  has 
taken  advantage  of  one  deficiency  of  the  human  eye. 
This  wonderful  organ  of  ours  has  a  defect  which  is  known 
as  "visual  persistence."     Briefly  defined,  this  means  that 

b  2 


4  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

the  brain  persists  in  seeing  an  object  after  it  is  no  longer 
visible  to  the  eye.  I  will  make  this  clear  by  further 
explanation. 

The  eye  is  in  itself  a  wonderful  camera.  The  imprint  of 
an  object  is  received  upon  a  nervous  membrane  which  is 
called  the  retina.  This  is  connected  with  the  brain,  where 
the  actual  conception  of  the  impression  is  formed,  by  the 
optic  nerve.  The  picture  therefore  is  photographed  in  the 
eye  and  transmitted  from  that  point  to  the  brain.  Now 
a  certain  period  of  time  must  elapse  in  the  conveyance  of 
this  picture  from  the  retina  along  the  optic  nerve  to  the 
brain,  in  the  same  manner  that  an  electric  current  flowing 
through  a  wire,  or  water  passing  through  a  pipe,  must 
take  a  certain  amount  of  time  to  travel  from  one  point  to 
another,  although  the  movement  may  be  so  rapid  that  the 
time  occupied  on  the  journey  is  reduced  to  an  infinitesimal 
point  and  might  be  considered  instantaneous.  When  the 
picture  reaches  the  brain  a  further  length  of  time  is 
required  to  bring  about  its  construction,  for  the  brain  is 
something  like  the  photographic  plate,  and  the  picture 
requires  developing.  In  this  respect  the  brain  is  somewhat 
sluggish,  for  when  it  has  formulated  the  picture  imprinted 
on  the  eye,  it  will  retain  that  picture  even  after  the  reality 
has  disappeared  from  sight. 

This  peculiarity  can  be  tested  very  easily.  Suppose  the 
eye  is  focussed  upon  a  white  screen.  A  picture  suddenly 
appears.  The  image  is  reflected  upon  the  retina  of  the  eye, 
and  transmitted  thence  to  the  brain  along  the  optic  nerve. 
Before  the  impression  reaches  the  brain  the  picture  has 
vanished  from  the  sight  of  the  eye.  Yet  the  image  still 
lingers  in  the  brain ;  the  latter  persists  in  seeing  what  is 
no  longer  apparent  to  the  eye,  just  as  plainly  and  as 
distinctly  as  if  it  were  in  full  view.  When  the  image  does 
disappear,  it  fades  away  gradually  from  the  brain. 

True,  the  duration  of  this  continued  impression  in  the 
brain  is  very  brief.  In  the  average  person  it  approximates 
about  2/48ths  of  a  second,  which  appears  so  short  as  not 
to  be  worth  consideration.  Still,  in  a  fraction  of  time  a 
good    deal    may    happen,   and  in    the    case    of    animated 


i         WHAT   IS   ANIMATED    PHOTOGRAPHY?  5 

photography  it  suffices  to  bring  a  second  picture  before 
the  eye  ere  the  impression  of  the  preceding  image  has 
faded  from  the  brain.  The  result  is  that  the  second  picture 
becomes  superimposed  in  the  brain  upon  the  preceding 
image;  and  being  stronger  and  more  brilliant,  it  causes 
the  disappearing  impression  to  merge  or  dissolve  into 
itself. 

Indeed,  one  might  go  farther,  and  say  that  the  brain 
acts  in  the  same  manner  as  a  dissolving  lantern.  This 
apparatus  is  very  familiar  to  us  all,  and  in  its  most 
approved  type  one  view  is  dissolved  into  another.  For  the 
purpose  two  lanterns  are  required,  placed  either  side  by 
side  or  one  above  the  other,  and  both  focussed  upon  the 
screen.  For  the  purpose  of  illustrating  our  complex  point 
we  will  consider  that  they  are  one  above  the  other.  A  slide 
is  projected  brilliantly  from  the  uppermost  lantern. 
Presently  the  moment  arrives  to  change  the  slide.  If  the 
operator  withdrew  it  from  the  upper  lantern  and  inserted 
another  there  would  be  a  defined  break  or  blank  interval 
upon  the  screen  betraying  the  change.  So  he  inserts 
the  new  slide  in  the  lower  lantern,  at  the  same  time 
increasing  the  volume  of  light  emitted  from  that  lantern, 
and  diminishing  the  volume  thrown  from  the  upper  lantern. 
The  result  is  that  the  picture  projected  from  the  upper 
lantern  becomes  fainter  and  fainter,  while  that  shown  by 
the  lower  lantern  becomes  stronger  and  stronger,  until 
only  the  latter  is  seen  upon  the  screen — the  former  has 
merged  or  dissolved  into  the  latter. 

The  same  action  takes  place  in  the  brain  in  connection 
with  cinematography.  A  picture  is  thrown  upon  the 
screen,  and  remains  visible  for  i/32nd  part  of  a  second. 
It  is  then  eclipsed  by  the  shutter,  and — supposing  that  the 
photographs  are  taken  at  the  rate  of  sixteen  pictures  per 
second — for  the  next  i/32nd  part  of  a  second  the  screen 
is  darkened  owing  to  the  passage  of  the  shutter.  This 
division  of  time  is  not  strictly  correct,  as  we  shall  see  later, 
but  for  present  purposes  I  have  considered  the  intervals  of 
exposure  and  eclipse  to  be  of  equal  duration. 

Now  as  a  picture  will  linger  in  the  brain  for  2/48ths  of 


6  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

a  second  after  it  has  vanished  from  the  sight  of  the  eye, 
the  brain  retains  the  impression  during  i/32nd  part  of  a 
second,  while  the  shutter  is  passing  across  the  lens.  The 
second  picture  now  comes  before  the  eye,  and  although  the 
previous  picture  still  will  remain  in  the  brain  for  another 
i /96th  part  of  a  second — the  difference  between  i/32nd 
and  2/48ths — the  new  picture,  being  the  more  brilliant, 
becomes  superimposed  upon  that  already  obtained,  and 
consequently  causes  the  former  dying  image  to  merge  into 
the  later  and  brighter  impression.  This  successive  dis- 
solution of  one  picture  into  the  other  continues  until  the 
whole  string  of  snap-shots  is  exhausted.  It  will  be  noticed 
that  every  picture  remains  on  the  screen  for  i/32nd  of  a 
second,  followed  by  a  period  of  darkness  of  nearly  equal 
duration,  the  pictures  thus  being  projected  at  the  rate  of 
sixteen  per  second. 

The  illusion  of  movement  is  enhanced  by  the  fact  that 
all  fixed  and  stationary  objects  retain  their  relative  positions 
in  each  succeeding  image.  Suppose,  for  instance,  that  a 
series  of  pictures,  depicting  a  man  walking  along  a  street, 
are  being  shown  upon  a  screen.  In  the  first  picture  the 
man  is  shown  with  his  left  foot  in  the  air.  This  remains 
in  sight  for  i/32nd  of  a  second,  and  then  disappears 
suddenly.  Though  the  picture  has  vanished  from  the  eye, 
the  brain  still  persists  in  seeing  the  left  foot  slightly  raised. 
One  thirty-second  part  of  a  second  later  the  next  picture 
shows  the  man  with  his  left  foot  on  the  ground.  The 
shops,  houses,  and  other  stationary  objects  in  the  second 
image  occupy  the  positions  shown  in  the  first  picture,  and 
consequently  the  dying  impression  of  these  objects  is 
revived,  while  the  brain  receives  the  impression  that  the 
man  has  changed  the  position  of  his  foot  in  relation  to 
the  stationary  objects,  and  the  left  foot  which  was  raised 
melts  into  the  left  foot  upon  the  ground.  The  eye  imagines 
that  it  sees  the  left  foot  descend.  Another  i/32nd  part 
of  a  second  passes,  and  the  right  foot  is  seen  elevated,  but 
the  fixed  objects  retain  their  positions  still,  and  so  on. 
The  brain  only  notices  the  difference  in  the  position  of  the 
moving   objects,  and  thus    secures    an   illusory    idea    that 


i         WHAT   IS   ANIMATED    PHOTOGRAPHY?         7 

movement  is  taking  place.  I  have  taken  a  very  simple 
example  to  illustrate  the  idea.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  moving 
pictures  of  men  walking  are  seldom  perfectly  successful, 
generally  having  a  jerky  movement. 

Thus  we  have  seen  what  we  describe  as  animated  photo- 
graphy is  not  animation  at  all.  All  that  happens  is  that 
a  long  string  of  snap-shot  photographs,  taken  at  intervals 
of  1 /24th  or  1 /32nd  part  of  a  second,  are  passed  at 
rapid  speed  before  the  eye.  If  the  pictures  are  pro- 
jected at  the  rate  of  one  per  second  they  resemble 
ordinary  magic  lantern  projections.  As  the  operator  slowly 
and  gradually  increases  the  speed,  the  figures  shown  in 
the  pictures  assume  a  spasmodic  motion,  as  if  their  limbs 
were  moved  jerkily  by  means  of  strings;  this  action 
becoming  less  and  less  pronounced  as  the  speed  is 
accelerated,  until,  at  last,  when  the  operator  gains  the 
requisite  rate  of  projection,  the  jerky  movement  becomes 
resolved  into  steady  rhythmic  action. 

In  the  early  days  it  was  difficult  to  convey  the  impression 
that  motion  was  being  shown,  because  the  movement  of 
the  shutter  cutting  off  the  picture  was  so  emphasised  as 
to  convey  a  distinct  sense  of  blankness  between  the  suc- 
cessive images.  This  regular  intermittent  occurrence  of 
invisibility,  described  as  "flicker,"  caused  tremendous 
strain  to  the  eyes,  and  provoked  nauseating  headache. 
When  the  flicker  was  eliminated  the  strain  ceased;  the 
illusion  was  rendered  more  perfect  as  well. 

In  order  to  satisfy  one's  self  that  the  semblance  of 
animation  is  an  illusion,  one  has  only  to  compare  the  pro- 
jection of  a  moving  object  upon  the  screen,  and  its 
appearance  in  the  camera  obscura.  In  the  latter  case 
absolute  continuous  motion  is  shown.  It  may  be  said  that 
complete  animation  by  photography  is  quite  out  of  the 
question  with  the  single  camera  and  projector.  How  it 
can  be  avoided  and  a  more  perfect  camera  obscura  effect 
produced  upon  the  screen  is  described  later.  Mechanical 
ingenuity  has  not  succeeded  yet  in  achieving  such  a  result 
by  means  of  a  single  lens. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  only  one-half  or  less  of  the  move- 


8  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

ment  that  actually  takes  place  is  recorded  upon  the  film. 
What  is  lost  occurs  during  the  period  the  shutter  is  closed 
after  exposure,  in  order  to  permit  a  fresh  area  of  sensitised 
surface  to  be  brought  into  position  behind  the  lens.  How- 
ever, the  lapses  are  equal  in  point  of  time;  and  when 
sixteen  pictures  are  taken  per  second,  the  interruption  in 
the  movement  is  not  detected  by  the  brain. 

It  may  be  asked  why  the  operator  confines  himself  to 
photographing  at  a  speed  of  about  sixteen  pictures  per 
second.  This  question  is  governed  for  the  most  part  by 
economical  motives.  Film  is  expensive,  and  therefore  the 
obvious  point  is  to  consume  the  minimum  of  material  to 
secure  the  illusion.  When  Edison  produced  the  kineto- 
scope,  at  least  thirty  pictures  per  second  were  necessary 
to  bring  about  the  illusion,  but  Messrs.  Lumiere  and  Paul, 
by  means  of  their  apparatuses,  which  were  the  first  com- 
mercial cinematographs,  reduced  the  number  to  sixteen 
pictures  per  second.  If  twenty-four  photographs  were 
taken  and  projected  per  second  the  result  would  be  prac- 
tically no  better  than  when  only  sixteen  pictures  were  made 
in  the  same  period,  so  that  the  additional  eight  pictures 
and  their  requisite  length  of  film  represent  so  much  wasted 
effort  and  material. 

This  law  in  regard  to  visual  persistence  concerning  the 
number  of  pictures  per  second  holds  good  only  so  long 
as  pictures  are  taken  and  projected  in  monochrome  or  black 
and  white.  When  animation  in  colour  is  introduced, 
the  illusory  effect  produced  upon  the  brain  becomes  dis- 
turbed, as  is  explained  in  the  chapter  dealing  with  this 
latter  development  of  the  art. 

An  interesting  illustration  of  the  fact  that  the  eye  is 
deceived  may  be  narrated.  A  film  of  a  train  passing 
through  a  tunnel  was  required.  Two  trains  were  secured 
for  the  purpose,  and  at  the  rear  of  the  leading  train  the 
camera  was  mounted  in  order  to  photograph  the  one  follow- 
ing, care  being  observed  to  keep  them  an  equal  distance 
apart.  In  the  darkness  of  the  tunnel  the  question  of 
illumination  for  the  purposes  of  the  exposures  was  some- 
what perplexing.     Various  expedients  were  attempted,  but 


i         WHAT   IS   ANIMATED    PHOTOGRAPHY?         9 

all  to  no  avail,  and  it  appeared  as  if  the  task  would  have 
to  be  abandoned. 

One  of  the  party  thereupon  suggested  a  novel  solution 
of  the  difficulty.  A  section  of  the  track  was  marked  off, 
and  subdivided  into  short  sections.  The  train  was  brought 
to  the  first  mark  and  there  stopped,  when  a  flashlight 
photograph  was  made.  It  was  then  advanced  to  the  next 
mark,  and  another  flashlight  instantaneous  picture  was 
secured.  This  process  was  repeated  several  times,  the 
train  being  moved  forward  about  eighteen  inches  between 
each  exposure.  About  fifty  exposures  were  made  in  this 
manner,  and  the  length  of  exposed  film  thus  obtained 
was  multiplied  to  form  a  continuous  picture  of  great  length. 
When  projected  on  the  screen  several  hundred  photographs 
were  passed  before  the  audience  at  the  speed  of  sixteen 
pictures  per  second,  and  the  semblance  of  motion  was 
perfect,  the  train  having  the  appearance  of  travelling 
through  the  tunnel  at  express  speed. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  examples  known  to 
me  of  illusion  by  animated  photography,  and  although  it 
was  not  motion  at  all  that  was  recorded,  still  it  sufficed  to 
convey  the  impression  of  movement  to  the  public.  In  the 
course  of  the  following  chapters,  however,  various  suc- 
cessful illusions  caused  by  this  means  are  described, 
especially  in  regard  to  "trick  pictures." 


CHAPTER    II 

THE  FIRST   ATTEMPTS    TO   PRODUCE    MOVING    PICTURES 

The  idea  of  producing  apparent  animation  by  means  of 
pictures  is  by  no  means  new.  The  origin  of  the  most 
primitive  form  of  moving  picture  device  is  lost  in  the  mists 
of  antiquity;  but  it  is  certain  that  long  before  photography 
was  conceived  animated  pictures  were  in  vogue,  and  con- 
stituted a  source  of  infinite  amusement  among  children. 
The  illusion  was  secured  by  a  simple  device  known  as  the 
Zoetrope  or  the  "Wheel  of  Life."  It  consists  of  a  small 
cylinder,  mounted  on  a  vertical  spindle  in  such  a  way 
that  it  is  free  to  revolve  horizontally.  A  band  of  thin 
cardboard,  or  thick  paper,  on  which  is  painted  a  series  of 
pictures,  generally  in  colour,  depicting  successive  stages 
in  a  particular  movement,  such  as  a  horse  jumping,  a  child 
swinging,  or  two  youngsters  playing  see-saw,  is  placed 
horizontally  around  the  inside  of  the  lower  half  of  the 
cylinder.  The  upper  half  is  pierced  at  regular  intervals 
by  long  narrow  slits  or  vertical  openings,  which  come 
opposite  the  pictures  and  extend  only  about  half-way  down 
the  length  of  the  wall.  When  the  cylinder  is  rotated 
sharply  and  one  looks  through  the  slits,  the  pictures 
portray  apparent  motion — the  horse  rises  and  falls  in  the 
jump,  the  swing  moves  to  and  fro,  and  the  see-saw  goes 
up  and  down — in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  visual 
persistence. 

Each  successive  picture,  it  must  be  pointed  out,  is  inter- 
rupted by  the  space  in  the  surface  of  the  wall  between  two 
consecutive  slits  through  which  one  peeps  into  the  cylinder. 
We  have,  in  fact,  a  cinematograph  in  the  most  primitive 


ch.ii  THE   FIRST   MOVING   PICTURES  n 

form ;  the  space  between  the  apertures  corresponding  to 
the  opaque  sector  of  the  shutter  of  the  camera  and  the 
projector,  whereby  one  picture  is  eclipsed  from  view  on 
the  screen  to  permit  the  next  to  be  brought  before  the  lens. 
Indeed,  one  can  easily  convert  the  zoetrope  into  a  cinemato- 
graph if,  instead  of  painted  pictures,  prints  of  a  cinemato- 
graph film  are  mounted  in  the  same  way.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  some  ingenious  person  followed  this  practice  years 
ago,  thus  unconsciously  producing  the  first  animated 
pictures  by  photography,  and  in  a  crude  way  anticipating 
the  kinetoscope. 

From  time  to  time  the  zoetrope  was  modified  and  revived 
in  the  praxinoscope,  phenakistoscope,  zoopraxinoscope, 
and  a  number  of  other  forms  with  awe-inspiring  names.  In 
every  instance,  however,  it  was  merely  our  old  friend  in 
a  new  guise.  One  of  these  modifications  created  a  flutter 
of  excitement  in  France  in  1877.  It  was  called  the 
"praxinoscope,"  and  its  creator,  M.  Reynaud,  for  the  first 
time  enabled  a  large  audience  to  see  animation  upon  the 
screen. 

In  this  case  projection  was  carried  out  in  a  highly  novel 
manner.  The  front,  or  proscenium  opening,  of  the  stage 
was  occupied  by  a  large  white  screen,  such  as  is  used  for 
magic  lantern  projection,  the  operator  and  his  apparatus 
being  on  the  stage  behind,  out  of  sight.  Accordingly  the 
audience  saw  the  picture  through  the  sheet.  At  the  back 
of  the  stage  a  limelight  lantern  was  set  up,  from  which  a 
still  life  picture  was  thrown,  filling  the  greater  part  of  the 
surface  of  the  screen.  The  picture  thus  shown  formed 
as  it  were  the  setting  for  the  animated  picture,  in  just  the 
same  way  as  the  scenery  comprises  the  environment  for  a 
stage  play. 

Below  the  level  of  the  stage  was  a  large  rectangular  table, 
at  each  corner  of  which  were  placed  small  vertical  rollers. 
At  one  end  of  the  table  were  two  large  spools,  fitted  with 
handles  which  were  revolved  horizontally.  One  spool 
carried  a  long  band  of  transparent  material,  on  which  were 
painted  at  regular  intervals  silhouette  figures  in  colour  in 
successive  stages  of  movement,     The  band  led  from  this 


12  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

spool  round  the  vertical  roller  immediately  adjacent,  then 
along  the  side  of  the  table  to  the  next  corner,  on  to  the 
next  corner,  on  to  the  third  corner,  back  to  the  fourth 
corner,  and  then  to  the  empty  reel,  on  which  it  was  wound. 
By  simultaneously  rotating  the  loaded  spool  with  the  left 
hand,  and  the  second  reel  with  the  right  hand,  the 
transparent  picture  band  was  passed  round  the  table  from 
one  spool  to  the  other. 

Centrally  with  the  sheet,  and  on  a  level  with  the  table, 
there  was  a  second  limelight  lantern,  the  back  of  which 
was  towards  the  audience.  This  lantern  threw  its  rays 
upward  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees  or  so.  As  the 
band  of  pictures  travelled  along  the  table  edge  from  the 
first  to  the  second  corner  roller,  it  was  passed  through  this 
second  lantern,  which  projected  the  silhouette  picture  into 
a  mirror  hung  overhead  at  the  back  of  the  stage,  which  in 
turn  reflected  the  image  on  the  screen.  The  figures  on 
the  band  thrown  from  the  second  lantern  appeared  in  the 
scene  of  the  slide  shown  by  the  first  lantern.  As  the  band 
was  moved  forward,  bringing  successive  phases  of  action 
upon  the  screen,  apparent  motion  was  produced.  In  fact, 
animated  pictures  were  shown,  and  it  was  possible  with  a 
number  of  spools  of  painted  bands  to  produce  a  comedy, 
tragedy,  or  other  stage  play  in  pictures.  This  crude 
apparatus  was  the  first  attempt  to  portray  moving  pictures 
upon  a  sheet  before  a  large  audience. 

As  instantaneous  photography  developed  and  efforts  were 
made  to  adapt  photographic  records  instead  of  painted  pic- 
tures to  the  praxinoscope,  great  difficulty  was  experienced 
in  securing  the  consecutive  pictures  sufficiently  close  to  one 
another  so  as  to  reduce  the  loss  of  action  between  two 
successive  pictures  to  the  minimum.  The  cameras  avail- 
able were  not  suited  to  this  work.  Too  much  time  was 
lost  in  removing  the  exposed  sensitised  surface  to  permit 
another  unexposed  area  to  be  brought  before  the  lens. 

About  1872  Mr.  Muybridge,  an  ingenious  Englishman, 
resident  in  San  Francisco,  conceived  a  novel  means  of 
obtaining  snap-shot  photographs  in  rapid  succession.  He 
maintained    that     such     photographs    taken     at     regular 


ii  THE   FIRST   MOVING   PICTURES  13 

intervals,  reproduced  in  such  a  manner  as  to  simulate 
natural  animation,  would  reveal  the  peculiar  attitudes  of 
animals  in  motion  and  would  prove  of  invaluable  service 
to  artists.  He  approached  Governor  Stanford  and  un- 
folded his  scheme.  Stanford  was  so  impressed  that  he 
placed  every  facility  at  Muybridge's  disposal  for  the  com- 
pletion of  the  experiment,  including  the  use  of  his  valuable 
stud  of  horses  and  exercising  track. 

As  it  was  impossible  to  secure  the  desired  end  with  a 
single  camera,  Muybridge  built  a  studio  beside  the  track, 
in  which  twenty-four  cameras  were  placed  side  by  side  in  a 
row.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  track,  facing  the  studio, 
he  erected  a  high  fence,  painted  white,  while  across  the 
track  between  the  studio  and  the  screen  twenty-four  threads 
were  stretched,  each  of  which  was  connected  with  a  power- 
ful spring,  which  held  in  position  the  shutter  of  a  camera. 

When  all  was  ready,  a  horse  was  driven  over  this  length 
of  track  at  a  canter,  gallop,  trot,  or  walk,  as  desired,  and 
as  the  animal  passed  each  camera,  it  broke  the  thread 
controlling  its  shutter,  so  that  the  horse  photographed  itself 
in  its  progress.  In  these  experiments,  however,  Muybridge 
made  no  effort  to  secure  detail.  The  photographs  were 
taken  in  brilliant  sunlight,  and  the  white  screen  threw  a 
dazzling  reflection,  causing  the  objects  to  stand  out  in  bold 
relief,  so  that  the  record  appeared  in  silhouette.  As  these 
photographs  were  taken  for  a  specific  purpose — the  analysis 
of  movement — the  screen  was  subdivided  into  panels, 
whereby  it  was  possible  to  determine  the  distance  between 
each  successive  picture.     (Fig.  1.) 

As  Muybridge's  experiments  were  carried  out  upon  a 
somewhat  private  basis,  the  information  about  them  that 
reached  Europe  was  of  a  very  meagre  description.  In 
France,  however,  they  aroused  a  strong  curiosity  and 
peculiar  interest,  especially  in  artistic  and  scientific  circles. 
They  appealed  especially  to  one  man — Meissonier.  The 
great  artist,  whose  accuracy  in  the  most  minute  detail  was 
proverbial,  was  fascinated.  He  had  observed  very  closely 
the  curious  attitudes  that  horses  assume  when  in  rapid 
motion,  and  had  committed  the  observations  to  his  canvases, 


H 


MOVING   PICTURES 


CHAP. 


.£j3 


ii  THE   FIRST   MOVING   PICTURES  15 

only  to  meet  with  strenuous  hostile  criticism  from  his 
colleagues  and  the  public.  So  when  Governor  Stanford, 
while  visiting  Paris,  displayed  some  of  Muybridge's  photo- 
graphs, the  great  painter  spent  hours  in  studying  them, 
and  characterised  them  as  an  incalculable  aid  to  art. 
Through  Governor  Stanford,  he  extended  an  invitation  to 
Muybridge. 

In  the  following  year  the  Anglo-American  experimenter 
— who  might  be  described  as  the  father  of  animated  photo- 
graphy— visited  the  French  capital,  and  received  a  warm 
greeting  by  Meissonier.  The  artist  had  been  criticised 
for  his  views  concerning  muscular  action,  as  displayed  by 
the  animals  on  his  canvases,  yet  here  was  a  man  who  could 
demonstrate,  by  the  conclusive  evidence  of  photography, 
that  his  views  were  correct.  Meissonier  arranged  a  private 
demonstration,  which  ranked  as  one  of  the  most  important 
social  events  of  the  year  in  Paris.  Among  those  who 
accepted  the  invitation  to  witness  the  new  wonder  were 
Gerome,  Goupil,  Steinheil,  Detaille,  Alexander  Dumas, 
and  Dr.  Mallez.  Muybridge  had  brought  a  representative 
collection  of  photographs  with  him,  showing  horses  in 
movement,  dogs,  deer,  and  other  animals  running  and 
jumping,  as  well  as  men  wrestling,  leaping,  and  performing 
other  athletic  exercises. 

The  pictures  were  examined  at  great  length  individually. 
Then  by  means  of  the  zoopraxoscope,  a  form  of  the  wheel 
of  life,  whereby  pictures  in  action  could  be  thrown  upon 
the  screen,  they  were  displayed  in  animation,  thereby  con- 
clusively demonstrating  the  fact  that  what  appeared  so 
incredibly  singular  an  attitude  in  a  painting  or  an  indi- 
vidual photograph  was  in  reality  part  of  a  graceful 
harmonious  natural  movement. 

There  was  one  feature  of  Muybridge's  work  which  must 
not  be  overlooked,  and  which  decidedly  restricted  its 
application.  A  battery  of  cameras  had  to  be  employed, 
placed  side  by  side.  It  was  as  if  a  number  of 
photographers,  standing  in  a  row,  pressed  a  button  the 
instant  the  object  in  motion  was  opposite  their  respective 
cameras.     All  the  photographs  were  broadside  views,  and 


16  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

taken  from  the  same  relative  position.  The  results  were 
not  as  the  following  eye  of  one  person  saw  them,  but  as 
the  eyes  of  twenty  or  thirty  persons  standing  side  by  side 
grasped  a  glimpse  of  motion  during  the  five-thousandth 
part  of  a  second.  If  Muybridge  had  attempted  to  take 
900  photographic  impressions,  such  as  the  cinematograph 
camera  records  in  the  space  of  a  minute  to-day,  he  would 
have  required  nine  hundred  cameras  for  the  purpose. 

Of  course,  such  a  plan  had  no  commercial  possibilities. 
Its  real  value  lay  in  the  fact  that  it  stimulated  the  ingenuity 
of  a  host  of  inventive  brains  towards  the  solution  of 
animated  photography.  One  and  all  were  bent  upon 
securing  the  same  result  that  Muybridge  had  achieved,  but 
with  a  single  camera  and  from  one  point  of  view.  Among 
these  experimenters  the  names  of  Greene  and  Evans,  Acres 
and  Paul  stand  pre-eminent  in  Great  Britain,  while  France 
and  the  United  States  had  an  equal  number  of  contem- 
poraneous investigators  engaged  upon  the  problem.  Even 
Muybridge  himself  attempted  its  solution,  for  he  realised 
only  too  well  that  a  battery  of  cameras  was  impracticable 
to  ensure  the  commercial  success  of  animated  photography. 

It  appears  to  be  a  sorry  trick  of  fortune  that  every  great 
invention,  or  development,  should  produce  a  bevy  of 
claimants  for  the  honour  of  being  the  "original  inventor." 
The  word  "original  "  is  somewhat  obscure  and  ambiguous, 
but  it  is  employed  frequently.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  a 
wise  invention  that  can  single  out  its  creator.  Animated 
photography  has  been  no  exception  to  the  rule.  Lawyers 
and  the  courts  have  reaped  a  rich  harvest  from  protracted 
litigation  in  the  effort  to  settle  the  question  once  and  for 
all,  with  the  inevitable  result — the  law  has  left  the  matter 
in  a  more  hazy  condition  than  ever. 

The  claim  to  the  discovery  of  animated  photography  can 
scarcely  be  sustained  by  any  one  man.  Desvignes  devised 
an  apparatus  in  i860;  Du  Mont  formulated  the  first  tangible 
scheme  of  chronophotography,  as  it  is  called,  in  1861, 
which  Donisthorpe  put  into  practice  in  1876,  while  a  host 
of  other  experimenters  contributed  to  the  problem  in  some 
particular   detail.     It   was  not    invention,    for   the   simple 


'X        *-»  Z? 


El 
-i  a 


p^  1 1 


DR.    MAREY'S    ANIMATED     PICTURES    MADE   IN    1884-86    FOR    nil-:    ANALYSIS   01 

\1<  H  ION. 

1.   A   man   jumping.       2.    A   man   walking.       3.   A  duck   flying.       4.   A   man   leaping. 

The  objects,  clothed  in  white,  passed  before  a  black  screen,    and  the  exposures  averaged 

about  ^nVi     of  a  second. 


ii  THE   FIRST   MOVING   PICTURES  17 

reason  that  there  was  nothing  to  invent;  it  was  merely 
evolution  and  the  perfection  of  details.  As  we  have  seen, 
what  the  experimenters  had  to  accomplish  was  the  reduc- 
tion of  the  length  of  time  occupied  in  bringing  one  sensi- 
tised surface  before  the  lens  after  the  preceding  sensitised 
surface  had  been  exposed.  This  was  a  matter  of  mechanical 
detail,  for  the  chemist  accelerated  the  speed  of  the  sensitised 
surface  more  and  more,  and  finally  evolved  the  celluloid 
film.  Various  means  of  bringing  successive  sections  of  a 
sensitised  surface  before  the  lens  were  evolved,  and  pro- 
duced a  plethora  of  patents;  but  the  perfection  of  details 
does  not  affect  the  fundamental  principle  of  animated 
photography.  In  Great  Britain  many  investigators  were 
energetic  in  the  quest,  but  the  great  majority  never  suc- 
ceeded beyond  the  model  stage ;  that  is  to  say,  their 
apparatuses  never  possessed  any  practical  value,  and  only 
served  to  emphasise  once  more  the  truth  of  the  well-worn 
axiom  that  there  is  a  great  gulf  between  the  creative  mind 
of  the  inventor  and  the  commercial  world  with  its  enormous 
capacity  for  development  and  exploitation. 

Among  the  early  British  experimenters  was  W.  F. 
Greene,  who,  like  others,  was  handicapped  by  having  to 
make  use  of  glass  plates.  In  1885  he  displayed  his  first 
apparatus  for  taking  and  producing  moving  pictures,  and 
two  years  later  exhibited  some  pictures  taken  on  glass  in 
the  window  of  his  premises  in  Piccadilly.  This  unusual 
display  created  such  interest,  and  the  curiosity-provoked 
public  so  crowded  the  pavement  that  traffic  was  impeded, 
and  the  police  called  upon  Greene  to  remove  his  pictures. 

In  France  even  greater  things  were  being  accomplished. 
Dr.  E.J.  Marey  took  up  Muybridge's  work  at  the  point 
where  the  Anglo-American  abandoned  it.  Marey  followed 
rather  the  lines  laid  down  by  the  astronomical  investigator 
Jansen,  who  in  1874  evolved  a  photographic  revolver  to 
secure  records  at  short  intervals  of  the  transit  of  Venus 
across  the  sun's  disc.  Marey  constructed  a  photographic 
gun  in  1882,  with  which  he  studied  the  flight  of  birds,  and 
which  worked  on  the  principle  elaborated  by  Jansen  eight 
years  before.     The  object  of  his  quest  was  the  analysis  of 

c 


1 8  MOVING  PICTURES  chap. 

motion.  It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  in  its  very  earliest 
stages  the  value  of  animated  photography  was  conceded  to 
be  rather  in  the  field  of  science  than  that  of  amusement. 
This  celebrated  French  experimenter  realised  the  inestim- 
able value  of  "chronophotography "  for  the  study  and 
investigation  of  moving  bodies,  the  rapidity  in  the  changes 
of  the  position  or  form  of  which  was  impossible  to  follow 
otherwise.  Marey,  however,  made  no  effort  towards 
synthesis  or  reproduction  of  the  motion  thus  obtained;  he 
did  not  seek  projection  upon  a  huge  scale  upon  the  screen, 
but  regarded  chronophotography  rather  as  a  means  of 
enabling  photographic  results  to  be  resolved  into  diagrams 
for  examining  and  elucidating  obscure  points  incidental  to 
motion. 

Special  apparatus  was  evolved  and  was  set  up  at  the 
Physiological  Station  in  Paris,  and  some  wonderful  results 
were  communicated  by  this  industrious  scientist  to  the 
French  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science  at 
Nancy  in  1886.  Investigations  were  being  carried  out 
upon  a  large  and  advanced  scale  in  France  while  the 
English  were  merely  dabbling  with  the  idea.  Marey 
secured  records  of  action  intermittently  from  a  single  point 
of  view  by  the  revolution  of  a  handle,  and  to  a  pronounced 
degree  anticipated   the  present-day   cinematograph. 

Marey's  camera  was  successful  in  its  details,  especially 
considering  the  extreme  difficulties  attending  the  use  of 
glass  plates.  He  ascertained  that  in  order  to  secure  con- 
tinuous motion  it  was  imperative  to  cut  off  the  light  from 
the  plate  at  regular  intervals;  and  he  accomplished  this 
interruption  by  rotating  an  opaque  disc,  pierced  with  small 
radial  slots,  which  permitted  the  light  to  reach  the  plate 
only  intermittently.  The  general  design  of  Marey's  camera 
is  shown  in  Fig.  2.  The  camera,  of  the  ordinary  bellows 
type,  was  mounted  in  the  upper  part  of  a  wooden  frame 
clamped  to  a  special  support.  Beneath  was  the  handle, 
which  rotated  the  shutter  through  gearing.  This  shutter 
moved  at  the  back  of  the  bellows,  occupying  the  same 
position  relatively  as  the  focal  plane  shutter  used  in  very 
rapid  still-life  instantaneous  photography.     By  means  of 


II 


THE   FIRST   MOVING   PICTURES 


l9 


this  shutter,  the  passage  of  a  body  across  the  field  of  the 
lens  was  split  up  into  a  number  of  consecutive  units.  The 
interval  between  two  successive  images,  and  the  time  of 
the  exposure,  could  be  altered  merely  by  varying  the 
revolving  speed  of  the  shutter.  As  a  rule,  the  exposures 
were  made  at  the  rate  of  ten  per  second,  but  in  some  cases 
the  length  of  the  exposure  was  only  i /2,000th  part  of  a 
second,  with  an  interval  of  one-fifth  second  between  two 


Fig.  2 — Marey's  Camera,  Showing  Shutter  with 
Radial  Slots. 


consecutive  pictures.     Marey  used  a  black  background,  and 
his  figures  were  clothed  in  white. 

There  was  an  important  reason  for  this  reversal  of 
Muybridge's  procedure.  In  the  latter  the  shutter  of  each 
camera  had  to  be  opened  as  the  horse  or  other  object 
passed  the  lens.  In  Marey's  system  the  sensitised  surface 
of  the  plate  is  directed  against  a  dead  black  screen,  and 
the  lens  may  be  left  open  without  exercising  any  ill  effect 

C   2 


20  MOVING  PICTURES  chap. 

upon  the  photographic  plate,  because  the  latter  receives 
no  light.  When  a  man  clothed  in  white  passed  across  this 
black  surface  in  full  sunlight,  only  his  figure  was  recorded 
upon  the  sensitised  surface,  and  thus  was  thrown  in  strong 
relief  against  the  black  background. 

Special  arrangements,  however,  had  to  be  made  to  ensure 
the  success  of  the  result.  A  flat  plane  black  background 
did  not  suffice,  as  a  certain  amount  of  light  was  reflected 
therefrom  into  the  lens,  resulting  in  the  plate  becoming 
fogged.  The  black  screen  employed  was  in  reality  a  black 
cavity,  known  as  "Chevreul's  black."  The  cavity  may  be 
likened  to  a  shed,  the  front  wall  of  which  is  removed,  and 
the  whole  interior  blackened.  In  the  screen  used  by  Marey 
at  the  Physiological  Station  in  Paris,  the  back  of  the  shed 
was  hung  with  black  velvet,  the  floor  was  covered  with 
pitch,  while  the  sides  and  ceiling  were  treated  with  a  dead 
black  medium. 

These  arrangements  enabled  Marey  to  secure  more  useful 
results  than  were  possible  to  Muybridge.  From  the 
scientific  point  of  view  they  proved  of  incalculable  value. 
His  marvellous  pictures  widened  our  knowledge  of  animal 
motion  to  a  remarkable  extent,  and  provided  incontro- 
vertible records  of  action.  Professor  Marey  ultimately 
recorded  the  sum  of  his  experiments  in  a  volume,  Move- 
ment, which  is  now  regarded  universally  as  a  classic  in 
physiological  science,  and  even  to-day  is  consulted  freely 
for  the  purpose  of  elucidating  complex  and  obscure  phases 
of  motion. 

Other  investigators  at  about  this  time  were  General 
Sebert,  M.  L.  Soret  of  Geneva,  and  Ottomar  Anschiitz  of 
Berlin.  Soret  succeeded  in  analysing  some  very  intricate 
movements,  while  Anschiitz  produced  a  curious  "wheel  of 
life,"  which  was  called  the  "electrical  tachyscope."  A 
special  camera  was  evolved  whereby  photographs  were 
taken  in  rapid  succession.  From  these  negatives  glass 
transparencies  similar  to  lantern  slides  were  produced,  and 
mounted  in  sequence  around  the  rim  of  a  large  wheel,  which 
had  to  be  of  sufficient  diameter  to  contain  the  whole  series 
of  pictures.     It  was  mounted  upon  a  massive  iron  pedestal, 


ii  THE   FIRST   MOVING   PICTURES  21 

and     was    revolved     from    the     rear     by     means     of     a 
handle. 

Behind  the  wheel,  and  at  the  highest  point,  which  corre- 
sponded to  the  level  of  the  eyes  of  the  average  person 
while  standing,  a  small  box  was  placed.  The  front  of  this 
box  was  open,  the  size  of  this  aperture  corresponding 
exactly  to  the  dimensions  of  the  transparency.  It  was 
fitted  with  a  small  electric  light — a  Geissler  tube,  in  fact, 
through  which  a  current  was  passed  from  a  Rhumkorff 
coil — and  this  light  was  switched  on  and  off  by  each 
picture  as  it  passed  before  the  front  of  the  lamp  box.  As 
each  picture  came  into  position  before  the  aperture  a  contact 
was  established,  and  an  impulse  of  electricity  was  dis- 
charged through  the  lamp.  It  was  a  mere  flash,  but  it 
served  to  illuminate  the  transparency  immediately  in  front, 
so  that  the  people  gazing  at  the  wheel  received  a  brilliant 
and  well-defined  impression  of  the  picture,  which  was  shown 
in  an  apparently  stationary  position,  though,  in  fact,  the 
wheel  was  revolving  continuously.  When  the  wheel  wras 
rotated  with  sufficient  speed,  the  flashes  occurred  in  such 
rapid  sequence  that,  in  accordance  with  the  phenomena  of 
visual  persistence,  the  illusion  of  animation  was  secured. 

This  was  an  extremely  ingenious  apparatus,  but  was  too 
complicated,  expensive,  and  elaborate  to  command  any 
commercial  value.  It  was  regarded  generally  as  a  scientific 
toy.  It  was  on  view  in  London,  in  the  Strand  near 
Chancery  Lane,  for  a  little  while,  but  failed  to  arouse  very 
marked  enthusiasm.  However,  the  "inventor's  fiddle," 
as  the  Anschiitz  tachyscope  was  popularly  called,  was 
adopted  by  several  other  inventors  with  certain  modifica- 
tions, but  its  application  was  naturally  extremely  limited. 
Comparatively  speaking,  only  a  very  few  pictures  could  be 
carried  in  the  rim  of  the  wheel,  and  as  the  travelling  speed 
was  somewhat  high  in  order  to  convey  a  tangible  impression 
of  continuous  motion,  a  subject  was  exhausted  in  a  few 
seconds. 

Associated  with  Dr.  Marey  in  his  experiments  was 
another  indefatigable  spirit,  M.  Georges  Demeny.  He 
displayed   considerable    ingenuity  in   breaking  down    the 


22  MOVING   PICTURES  ch.  ii 

peculiar  difficulties  associated  with  this  work.  Unfortu- 
nately the  value  of  M.  Demeny's  efforts  have  never  been 
appreciated;  but  he  brought  his  mind  to  bear  upon  the 
subject  at  a  critical  period,  and  devoted  all  his  energies, 
time,  and  thought  to  the  solution  of  complicated  problems 
that  defied  contemporary  experimenters.  He  proved  an 
indispensable  colleague  to  Professor  Marey,  which  the 
author  of  Movement  did  not  fail  to  acknowledge.  So 
far  as  France  is  concerned,  he  rightly  deserves  to  be 
regarded  as  the  pioneer  in  cinematography.  He  not  only 
photographed  motion,  but  he  reproduced  it  upon  the  screen, 
and  devised  an  ingenious  camera  and  projector  to  achieve 
his  end. 

M.  Georges  Demeny  was  forestalled  in  Great  Britain 
by  Messrs.  Greene  and  Evans,  who  produced  a  chrono- 
photographic  apparatus  which  they  patented  in  June,  1889, 
wherein  the  film  was  drawn  intermittently  before  the  lens 
for  exposure.  Two  months  previously,  in  April,  1889, 
another  inventor,  Stern,  had  filed  a  patent  also,  and  these 
constitute  the  first  intimation  at  the  British  Patent  Office 
of  the  pending  developments  in  cinematography.  Neither 
issued  beyond  the  experimental  and  model  stage,  for  the 
simple  reason  that  they  were  not  reliable  in  their  operation. 
There  was  no  satisfactory  mechanical  means  for  moving 
the  sensitised  surfaces  forward  an  equal  distance  after  each 
exposure,  and  this  omission  of  an  indispensable  feature 
oroved  fatal  to  their  success 


CHAPTER  III 

THE    SEARCH    FOR    THE    CELLULOID   FILM 

In  the  struggle  towards  the  perfection  of  animated 
photography  the  use  of  glass  plates  was  a  great  hindrance. 
Investigators  were  hampered  very  seriously ;  they  were 
thwarted  at  every  turn.  True,  the  appearance  of  the  dry 
plate  somewhat  facilitated  their  efforts,  but  nevertheless 
the  inevitable  glass  was  bulky,  heavy,  fragile,  and  awkward 
to  handle.  Finally,  the  number  of  pictures  obtainable 
upon  a  single  surface  was  limited. 

Realising  the  restrictions  incidental  to  this  sensitised 
medium,  the  energies  of  many  investigators  were  devoted 
to  the  discovery  of  a  less  bulky,  lighter,  and  more  con- 
venient substitute.  Gelatine  appeared  promising  at  first 
sight,  but  failed  to  give  the  anticipated  results  because  it 
lacked  stability,  and  when  immersed  in  the  developing 
solution  precipitated  a  variety  of  unexpected  disasters 
which  placed  it  out  of  court  completely.  The  next  expe- 
dient was  the  use  of  transparent  paper,  similar  to  what  we 
call  grease-proof  paper,  covered  with  the  gelatine  emulsion, 
invented  by  Morgan  and  Kidd,  of  Richmond.  When  the 
exposures  were  made,  the  paper  was  opaque  and  resembled 
ordinary  bromide  paper,  the  essential  transparent  effect 
being  secured  by  an  operation  after  development  and 
fixing.  This  failed  to  give  a  clear,  distinct  positive,  and 
the  grain  of  the  paper  so  broke  up  the  resultant  picture 
that  this  alternative  was  abandoned.  A  suggestion  advo- 
cated by  the  Rev.  W.  Palmer  also  was  attempted.  The 
picture,  after  development  and  fixing,  was  stripped  from 

its  opaque  support,  and  attached  to  a  stiff  sheet  of  insoluble 

23 


24  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

gelatine.  This  gave  a  somewhat  better  effect,  but  it  was 
a  round-about  method,  and  the  stripping  operation  was 
one  of  great  delicacy,  involving  extreme  care,  and  un- 
certain in  its  results. 

These  substitutes  failing  one  after  another,  the  hopes  of 
the  experimenters  became  centred  upon  celluloid,  which 
from  every  point  of  view  appeared  the  most  suitable 
medium.  The  application  of  celluloid  to  photographic 
purposes  Had  been  advocated  many  years  previously,  but 
there  were  many  obstacles  of  a  technical  character  which 
prevented  its  use  at  the  time.  The  investigator,  however, 
continued  the  struggle  towards  bringing  the  celluloid  film 
into  the  realm  of  practicability. 

He  was  baffled  in  one  particular  direction.  Celluloid 
could  not  be  employed  with  the  collodion  process,  for  the 
collodion  which  constituted  the  sensitive  surface  in  the  old 
wet  process  with  glass  plates,  and  which  in  itself  is  a 
solution  of  pyroxyline,  a  kind  of  guncotton — one  of  the 
basic  constituents  of  celluloid — dissolved  the  celluloid  which 
was  coated  with  it.  The  perfection  of  the  gelatino-bromide 
process  removed  this  defect. 

Then  another  difficulty  loomed  up.  Celluloid  at  that 
time  was  not  made  in  sheets  sufficiently  thin  to  render  it 
applicable  to  photography,  and  the  manufacturers  of  the 
commodity  could  not  be  prevailed  upon  to  prepare  the 
substance  in  this  form.  They  argued  that  there  was  no 
promise  of  a  sufficiently  remunerative  market  to  warrant 
the  design  of  special  machinery  for  the  manufacture  of  such 
a  product.  Consequently,  the  experimenters  were  forced 
to  prepare  their  own  film  bases. 

The  experiences  of  those  who  grappled  with  this  question 
and  faced  trials  and  tribulations  innumerable  in  this  par- 
ticular phase  of  operations  make  interesting  reading.  One 
reduced  the  celluloid  to  a  liquid  consistency  and  poured 
the  plastic  mass  over  large  glass  plates,  rolling  it  out  to 
form  a  thin  skin.  The  surface  of  the  glass  previously  was 
cleaned  carefully  to  prevent  the  mixture  adhering  thereto. 
The  pouring  had  to  be  carefully  done  so  as  to  secure  an 
even  thickness,  and  to  avoid  the  formation  of  air  bubbles. 


in  SEARCH  FOR  THE  CELLULOID  FILM  25 

In  this  way  a  thin  sheet  was  secured — a  decided  forward 
step.  In  the  dark  room  this  "base,"  as  it  is  called,  had 
next  to  be  covered  with  a  thin  layer  of  sensitised  emulsion, 
and  the  whole  left  to  dry.  Afterwards  the  sheet  was  cut 
into  strips  of  the  width  required  for  the  camera  and 
apparatus.  Unfortunately,  in  drying,  the  celluloid  was 
found  to  play  many  sorry  tricks.  It  buckled,  twisted,  and 
shrank  into  strange  contortions,  and  the  films  thus  pro- 
duced were  still  somewhat  too  substantial,  being,  in  fact, 
very  similar  to  those  used  in  the  pack-film  camera  of  to-day. 

Another  worker  was  more  fortunate.  By  dint  of  impor- 
tunity he  succeeded  in  inducing  one  manufacturing  firm 
to  produce  sheets  of  celluloid  no  thicker  than  drawing 
paper  for  his  experiments.  But  when  the  sheets  were 
delivered  they  were  far  from  being  satisfactory,  being 
deficient  in  uniformity  of  thickness.  Before  the  surface 
could  be  coated  with  sensitised  emulsion  a  tedious  task  had 
to  be  performed.  The  inequalities  had  to  be  scraped  and 
pared  off,  and  finally  the  whole  sheet  had  to  be  made 
thinner  by  being  rubbed  down  with  emery  cloth  and  sand- 
paper. Hours  were  occupied  in  this  process,  and  often  a 
maddening  accident  happened  in  the  final  stages  which 
irreparably  injured  the  sheet  and  wasted  not  only  time,  but 
costly  material.  Even  when  sensitising  was  carried  out 
successfully,  it  was  found  extremely  difficult  to  keep  the 
material  flat.  It  is  not  surprising  that  after  a  prolonged 
experience  of  these  disadvantages,  this  particular  investi- 
gator abandoned  his  experiments  for  a  time. 

In  the  majority  of  these  efforts  the  pictures  obtained  were 
about  four  inches  in  width  by  three  inches  deep,  while  the 
modern  cinematograph  film  is  only  if  of  an  inch  in  width 
by  three-quarters  of  an  inch  deep,  and  almost  as  thin  as  a 
shaving.  The  celluloid  made  at  that  time  was  not  very 
transparent,  and  as  the  pictures  were  somewhat  dense,  the 
results  were  far  from  being  satisfactory. 

It  began  to  look  as  though  celluloid  were  doomed  to 
follow  in  the  wake  of  the  other  expedients  that  had  been 
tested  and  found  wanting.  Such  would  have  been  the  case 
but  for  the  indefatigable  efforts  of  one  man  who  persevered 


26  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

with  his  experiments  in  the  face  of  heartrending  failures 
and  disappointing  results.  This  was  Mr.  Eastman,  of 
Rochester,  in  the  State  of  New  York,  who  worked  in  con- 
junction with  Mr.  Walker.  These  two  gentlemen  had 
established  a  dry  photographic  plate  manufacturing 
process,  which  had  developed  into  a  conspicuous  success, 
and  become  known  as  the  Eastman  Dry  Plate  Company, 
now  familiar  as  the  Eastman  Kodak  Company. 

The  story  of  their  innumerable  experiments  and  ultimate 
success  constitutes  a  fascinating  chapter  in  the  story  of 
animated  photography.  As  early  as  1884  Mr.  Eastman 
realised  that  a  substitute  for  glass  was  in  demand  to  facili- 
tate ordinary  photography.  Accordingly  he  set  out  to 
discover  a  system  of  photographing  on  films.  As  he 
admits  himself,  it  was  by  no  means  a  new  idea.  From  time 
to  time  spasmodic  attempts  in  the  same  direction  had  been 
made  by  enterprising  inventors,  the  earliest  known  dating 
back  as  far  as  1854,  a  vear  or  two  before  the  invention  of 
Parkesine,  now  known  as  celluloid,  by  Mr.  A.  Parkes,  of 
Birmingham.  All  of  these  experimenters,  however,  had 
been  baffled  by  the  technical  difficulties  confronting  their 
quest,  and  Mr.  Eastman  had  no  tangible  assistance  to  aid 
him  in  his  work  of  research.  He  was  compelled  to  create 
the  foundation  upon  which  to  carry  out  his  developments, 
and  to  reap  success  from  mortifying  failures. 

In  1884,  when  Messrs.  Eastman  and  Walker  commenced 
operations,  the  problem  to  be  solved  in  the  production  of  a 
suitable  film,  and  the  evolution  of  the  means  to  handle  it 
in  the  camera,  were  formidable  obstacles.  The  mechanical 
part  of  the  work  proved  the  easier,  and  in  1885  roller 
photography,  which  has  revolutionised  the  art  of  photo- 
graphy, at  any  rate  from  the  amateur  point  of  view,  was 
invented  and  put  on  the  market.  This  principle  is  now 
well  known.  A  length  of  film,  wound  upon  one  roller,  is 
passed  behind  the  lens  in  sections  for  exposure,  and  then 
rolled  up  on  a  second  roller,  until  the  whole  has  been 
exposed.  The  device  simplified  the  process  very  appre- 
ciably, and  it  may  fairly  be  accused  of  being  the  parent  of 
the  modern  "Kodak  fiend." 


in  SEARCH  FOR  THE  CELLULOID  FILM  27 

Though  the  mechanical  part  of  the  problem  had  thus 
been  solved  successfully,  the  film  question  was  perfected 
only  partially  at  this  time.  The  film  itself  was  far  from 
satisfactory,  but  it  sufficed  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the 
day,  and  to  enable  roller  photography  to  come  into  vogue. 

To  meet  the  peculiar  demands  of  roller  photography, 
Mr.  Eastman  had  set  himself  the  task  of  producing  a 
transparent  base  or  support  for  the  sensitised  emulsion. 
That  is  to  say,  he  sought  and  produced  a  stable  substitute 
for  the  glass  plate  upon  which  the  sensitised  emulsion  to 
record  the  image  could  be  mounted.  It  was  no  easy  search, 
as  he  speedily  found  to  his  cost,  for  it  involved  scores  of 
experiments,  one  after  the  other,  all  of  which  resulted  in 
heartrending  failure.  He  sought  to  build  up  such  a  base 
as  he  had  in  mind  by  means  of  successive  layers  of 
collodion  and  rubber,  but  the  result  did  not  possess  suffi- 
cient substance  and  strength. 

Then  he  had  recourse  to  paper,  which  he  used  merely 
as  a  temporary  support.  The  roll  of  paper  was  first  coated 
with  soluble  gelatine,  and  afterwards  with  the  sensitised 
emulsion,  which  was  rendered  insoluble  in  itself  by  the 
addition  of  chrome  alum.  This  produced  a  substantial 
film  which  was  exposed  by  means  of  the  roll  holder 
attached  to  the  ordinary  camera.  The  image  was  de- 
veloped and  fixed.  Then,  still  attached  to  the  paper, 
the  film  was  placed  while  wet,  immediately  after  washing, 
upon  a  piece  of  glass  coated  with  a  thin  solution  of 
rubber. 

As  soon  as  the  surface  had  dried,  hot  water  was  applied 
to  the  paper,  which  as  the  gelatine  dissolved  became 
detached,  leaving  the  film  adhering  to  the  surface  of  the 
rubber-coated  glass.  In  place  of  the  paper  a  moistened 
thin  sheet  of  gelatine  was  substituted.  When  the  whole 
had  dried  thoroughly  it  was  detached  from  the  glass,  and 
the  result  was  a  perfectly  transparent  negative. 

The  process  was  necessarily  somewhat  intricate  and 
occupied  some  time,  but  the  results  obtained  were  suffi- 
ciently practicable  to  render  it  commercially  exploitable. 
Mr.  Eastman,  however,  soon  recognised  the  fact  that  the 


28  MOVING  PICTURES  chap. 

trouble  of  transferring  the  image  from  the  temporary  paper 
base  to  the  gelatine  support  decreased  the  practical  value 
of  the  process.  He  decided  to  dispense  with  the  paper 
support  entirely,  and  in  his  search  for  a  suitable  substitute 
his  thoughts  turned  toward  celluloid.  He  communicated 
with  the  various  manufacturers  of  that  material,  but  not 
one  was  prepared  to  supply  him  with  the  substance  in 
sheets  of  sufficient  size  and  thinness.  Consequently  he 
was  compelled  to  devise  ways  and  means  to  supply  the 
deficiency;  and  this  was  achieved  partially  by  accident. 

In  the  early  part  of  1889  some  experiments  were  being 
made  to  discover  a  varnish  to  take  the  place  of  the  gelatine 
sheets.  One  of  his  chemists  drew  Mr.  Eastman's  atten- 
tion to  a  thick  solution  of  gun-cotton  in  wood  alcohol.  It 
was  tested  to  prove  its  suitability  to  take  the  place  of  the 
gelatine,  but  was  found  wanting  in  practical  efficiency. 
However,  Mr.  Eastman  recognised  the  solution  as  one 
which  might  prove  to  be  the  film  base  for  which  he  had  been 
searching.  He  had  had  such  a  medium  in  mind  when 
engaged  in  his  first  experiments  in  1884,  which  resulted 
in  the  production  of  the  stripping  film.  He  decided  to 
utilise  this  solution  of  gun-cotton  in  wood  alcohol  and  to 
fashion  it  into  the  foundation  for  the  sensitised  emulsion, 
so  that  stripping  and  other  troublesome  operations  of  a 
like  nature  might  be  avoided.  He  was  moved  to  this 
experiment  because  this  solution  could  be  made  almost 
as  transparent  practically  as  glass.  Accordingly  he  set 
to  work  to  devise  a  machine  to  prepare  thin  sheets  such 
as  he  required  from  this  mixture.  Success  crowned  his 
efforts,  and  in  1889  the  first  long  strip  of  celluloid  film 
suited  to  cinematograph  work  appeared  in  the  United 
States. 

Messrs.  Eastman  and  Walker  had  not  been  alone  in 
their  quest.  In  England  experiments  were  being  carried 
out  in  the  same  field.  Curiously  enough,  the  main  idea 
in  this  instance  was  to  evolve  a  form  of  roller  photography, 
the  British  experimenter  being  Mr.  Blair.  He  likewise 
met  with  success;  and  the  film  was  manufactured  at  St. 
Mary  Cray  in  Kent.     Though  this  film  was  far  from  being 


in        SEARCH  FOR  THE  CELLULOID  FILM  29 

perfect,  showing  considerable  variation  in  thickness,  it 
served  to  assist  the  experiments  in  animated  photography 
to  a  marked  degree.  The  celluloid  strip  thus  produced 
was  about  twice  the  width  of  that  now  used  in  cinemato- 
graphy, and  as  in  the  early  attempts  towards  moving 
pictures,  no  effort  was  being  made  towards  projection — 
the  illusion  was  received  by  looking  into  an  instru- 
ment through  which  the  film  travelled,  and  behind 
which  a  light  was  placed — it  was  made  with  a  matt  surface, 
so  that  it  closely  resembled  ground  glass,  upon  which  the 
images  stood  out  distinctly  and  brilliantly.  The  width 
of  the  film  was  gradually  decreased ;  but  this  film- 
manufacturing  industry  never  got  a  firm  foothold  in 
England.  The  Blair  company  was  merged  in  that  of  the 
Eastman  company  in  America,  and  it  was  not  until  many 
years  had  passed  that  another  bid  for  participation  in  the 
manufacture  of  celluloid  film  for  moving  picture  pur- 
poses was  made  by  a  British  firm. 

So  soon  as  it  leaked  out  in  America  in  1889  that  Mr. 
Eastman  had  succeeded  in  his  difficult  search,  and  that 
a  film  with  a  transparent  rigid  support  which  was  no  more 
difficult  to  handle  than  a  glass  plate,  and  yet  which  was 
flexible  and  free  from  fragility,  was  commercially  avail- 
able, another  experimenter  appeared  on  the  scene.  He 
had  been  labouring  in  the  field  for  some  years,  but, 
realising  the  futility  of  glass  plates,  had  postponed  his 
investigations  until  such  time  that  a  substitute  could 
be  obtained.  His  apparatus  was  ready,  but  the  film 
was  the  missing  link.  Immediately  it  was  available  he 
secured  some  of  the  material  and  completed  his  apparatus. 
That  man  was  Thomas  Alva  Edison,  and  his  "Kineto- 
scope,"  was  the  first  commercial  appliance  to  show 
pictures  in  natural  movement.  Animated  photography 
was  lifted  from  the  realm  of  experiment  into  that  of 
commercial  practicability. 


CHAPTER   IV 

THE    KINETOSCOPE  :    THE   ANIMATOGRAPH  :    THE 
CINEMATOGRAPH 

The  Kinetoscope 

The  World's  Fair  at  Chicago  drew  huge  crowds  from 
all  parts  of  the  world  in  1893.  The  innumerable  and 
varied  side-shows  evinced  keen  rivalry  to  obtain  popular 
patronage.  But  there  was  one  building  sheltering  a  small 
instrument  which  made  a  particularly  bold  bid  for  public 
favour.  It  was  a  novelty,  something  that  the  man  in  the 
street  had  never  seen  before. 

The  announcement  ran  that  "Edison's  Kinetoscope, 
showing  photographs  in  motion,  was  to  be  seen  for  the 
first  time."  It  worked  automatically,  and  to  investigate 
the  new  wonder  the  curiosity-provoked  sightseer  dropped 
a  nickel — a  coin  equal  in  value  to  2\d. — into  the  slot,  and 
applied  his  eye  to  the  peep-hole,  when  he  was  treated  to 
a  new  sensation  for  about  30  seconds.  He  saw  photo-' 
graphic  pictures  flit  before  his  gaze  in  such  rapid  succes- 
sion that  they  appeared  to  be  imbued  with  life.  Children, 
skipped,  the  lips  of  an  orator  moved  in  speaking,  and  so 
on.  It  certainly  was  a  marvellous  device,  and  those  who 
availed  themselves  of  the  opportunity  to  see  it  in  operation 
by  means  of  the  nimble  nickel,  expressed  undisguised 
wonderment;  to  many  it  appeared  uncanny. 

The  Kinetoscope,  Fig.  3,  was  housed  in  a  wooden 
cabinet  with  a  hinged  door  at  one  side.  Within  was  a 
wooden  frame  A,  which  carried  a  series  of  small  reels  B 
and  B1  arranged  in  two  horizontal  rows  at  either  edge  of  the 
frame.     At  the  top  of  the  frame  there  were  two   larger 


CH.  IV 


THE   KINETOSCOPE 


3i 


wheels  C,  between  which  was  a  magnifying  lens  D. 
Behind  the  latter  there  was  a  small  electric  lamp  and 
reflector  F.  In  front  of  the  magnifying  lens  there  was  a 
disc  having  a  narrow  radial  slot  near  its  edge,  which  con- 
stituted the  shutter.  This  was  rotated  continuously,  and 
completed  one  revolution  during  the  passage  of  each  image 
across  the  eye-piece  or  magnifying  lens. 


Fig.  3. — Edison's  First  Kinetoscope. 

The  ribbon  of  pictures,  printed  as  transparencies  upon  a 
strip  of  celluloid  film,  somewhat  dense  so  as  to  bring  out 
the  detail,  formed  an  endless  band  E,  40  feet  in  length. 
This  was  threaded  over  the  various  reels  in  the  manner 
shown  in  the  illustration,  and  finally  passed  over  the  first 
large  wheel  C,  thence  to  the  second  large  wheel  C,  and  back 


32  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

once  more  on  to  the  reels  B  B1.  Though  40  feet  consti- 
tuted the  average  length  of  film  employed,  longer  ones 
could  be  used  within  certain  limits,  by  increasing  the 
number  of  reels  on  the  frame.  As  the  film  passed  from 
one  of  the  large  wheels  C  to  the  other,  it  had  to 
traverse  the  field  of  the  magnifying  lens,  and  the  light, 
striking  through  the  transparency,  gave  the  person  looking 
through  the  eye-piece  a  slightly  magnified  view  of  the 
picture. 

The  cabinet  stood  on  end,  so  that  one  had  to  bend  over 
the  instrument  to  peer  through  the  small  eye-piece.  When 
the  coin  dropped  into  the  slot,  an  electric  motor  was 
started,  setting  the  film  and  shutter  in  motion.  The  film 
travelled  from  left  to  right,  while  the  shutter  rotated  in 
the  opposite  direction,  cutting  up  the  band  of  pictures  into 
separate  images,  so  that  only  one  was  seen  at  a  time. 
The  band  travelled  continuously,  and  each  image  was 
momentarily  rendered  visible  by  the  light  flashing  through 
the  radial  slot  in  the  shutter,  the  effect  being  the  same  as 
if  the  electric  incandescent  lamp  were  extinguished  and 
relighted  intermittently,  at  very  brief  intervals. 

The  shutter  had  to  be  revolved  at  sufficient  speed  to 
bring  the  radial  slot  near  its  edge  centrally  over  an  image ; 
in  other  words,  the  shutter  had  to  complete  its  revolution 
with  sufficient  speed  to  bring  the  opening  over  the  picture 
at  the  moment  the  latter  on  the  travelling  celluloid  film 
came  into  the  centre  of  the  field  of  the  lens.  When  this 
operation  was  carried  out  with  sufficient  velocity,  the  images 
were  seen  in  such  rapid  succession  as  to  convey  the  idea 
of  continuous  motion,  by  virtue  of  the  principle  of  visual 
persistence. 

One  point  must  be  borne  in  mind.  The  band  of  pictures 
travelled  continuously.  It  did  not,  as  in  the  machine  of 
to-day,  make  a  momentary  pause  as  it  came  between  the 
light  and  the  lens.  The  movement  to-day  is  inter- 
mittent, not  continuous,  though,  curiously  enough,  all  the 
early  experimenters  strove  first  towards  the  perfection  of 
the  latter  arrangement.  Continuous  motion  of  the  film 
has  proved   to   be    impossible,   because   the   shutter   must 


Edison   Film  made  about  i3oi  for 
the  kinetoscope 


rJdisi  hi    Film  made  in   igi  i   for 
the  cinema 


TWENTY    YEARS'    HISTORY    OF    MOVING    PICTURES    IN    FILMS. 


The  only  difference  between  the  two  films   is  that   the  kinetoscope   film    had    to   be   made 

i f  the  picture,    i-inch  wide  by  :;-inch  deep,  and  perforation   § 

..re  identical. 


iv  THE   ANIMATOGRAPH  33 

revolve  at  such  a  speed  that  the  illumination  is  not  suffi- 
cient to  produce  a  bright  impression  upon  the  screen.       a 

In  order  to  prevent  the  film  slipping  in  any  way  while 
travelling  over  the  smooth  reels  by  friction,  a  toothed 
sprocket  was  introduced  to  ensure  the  film  being  fed 
regularly  and  steadily  before  the  lens ;  and  to  secure  a 
purchase  upon  the  film  the  latter  was  perforated  uniformly 
along  the  margin  to  engage  with  the  sprocket  teeth. 
Edison  found,  as  a  result  of  his  experiments,  that  four 
perforations  per  picture,  on  either  side  of  the  film,  gave 
the  best  results,  though  in  his  earliest  investigations  he 
confined  himself  to  perforating  only  one  edge  in  this 
manner. 

Although  many  years  have  passed  since  the  Kinetoscope 
first  startled  the  public,  the  film  has  undergone  but  little 
change.  The  width  remains  the  same ;  the  dimensions  of 
the  picture  are  identical ;  and  the  perforation  gauge  has 
never  been  revised  in  regard  to  the  number  of  holes  per 
picture.  The  only  salient  difference  between  two  Edison 
films,  taken  at  intervals  of  twenty  years,  relates  to  the 
density  of  the  picture,  which  nowadays,  being  projected 
upon  a  screen  instead  of  being  followed  through  a  magni- 
fying glass  at  short  range,  is  thinner  and  lighter. 

Brilliant  as  the  Kinetoscope  was,  it  made  no  great  im-^- 
pression    upon    the    public.      It    became    known    as    the 
"peep-hole  machine,"  and  was  regarded,  like  the  telephone  / 
in  its  early  days,  as  a  scientific  toy.     Edison  appears  to/ 
have  failed  to  grasp  its  possibilities  and  the  important  part 
it  was  destined  to  play  in  our  complex  life,  for  he  did  not 
patent  it  in  Great  Britain.  — 

The  Animato graph 

Among  those  who  saw  the  instrument  at  the  World's 
Fair  were  two  Greek  visitors  from  London.  One  was  a 
greengrocer,  the  other  a  toy-maker.  With  shrewd  busi- 
ness instinct  they  perceived  here  an  opportunity  to  make 
a  fortune  in  England.  The  Kinetoscope  was  known  only 
by  name  in  London,  and  the  search  for  novelty  in  regard 

D 


34  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

to  new  forms  of  amusement  inevitably  brings  a  rich  reward 
to  the  ingenious  exploiter.  The  two  men  acquired  a 
machine  and  brought  it  home  with  them,  their  intention 
being  to  make  duplicates  and  instal  them  in  public  places, 
to  work  upon  the  penny-in-the-slot  principle. 

The  two  Greeks  evidently  were  not  animated  by  very 
lofty  ideas  of  business  integrity,  for  they  did  not  trouble 
to  ascertain  if  the  Kinetoscope  were  patented  in  Great 
Britain. 

Upon  arrival  in  London  they  sought  for  a  man  who 
could  duplicate  the  machine  they  had  brought  with  them ; 
and  they  approached  Mr.  Robert  W.  Paul,  an  electrical 
engineer  and  scientific  instrument  maker,  who  at  that  time 
had  his  workshops  in  Hatton  Garden.  They  brought  the 
Kinetoscope  to  him.  He  had  never  seen  it  before,  and 
was  deeply  interested  in  its  operation.  When,  however, 
they  suggested  that  he  should  produce  copies  of  it  to  their 
order,  he  declined,  for  he  felt  sure  that  Edison  never  would 
have  omitted  to  secure  its  protection  in  Great  Britain.  He 
pointed  out  to  the  Greeks  that  reproduction  would  prob- 
ably be  illegal,  and  that  both  he  and  they  would  expose 
themselves  to  litigation  and  heavy  damages  for  infringing 
a  patent. 

His  clients  expressed  dissatisfaction  at  this  decision  and 
departed  with  the  instrument.  After  they  had  gone,  Paul 
was  prompted  to  make  a  search  at  the  Patent  Office,  and 
to  his  intense  surprise  he  found  that  Edison  had  not  pro- 
tected his  invention  by  taking  out  British  patents.  He 
was  thus  at  liberty  to  build  as  many  machines  as  he 
desired,  and  forthwith  he  set  to  work,  not  only  for  his 
Greek  visitors,  but  also  for  his  own  market.  _ 

The  experience  with  the  Kinetoscope  in  the  United 
States  was  duplicated  in  Great  Britain,  as,  indeed,  it  was 
in  every  other  country  where  it  was  placed  on  exhibition^ 
Several  machines  were  set  up  at  apparently  suitable  points, 
but  the  public  failed  to  respond.  Two  factors  contributed 
to  this  result.  In  the  first  place,  the  machines  were 
weighty,  and  as  the  electricity  for  driving  the  motor  and 
lighting  the   incandescent  electric  lamp   was  drawn  from 


iv  THE   ANIMATOGRAPH  35 

accumulators,  the  whole  apparatus  was  somewhat  bulky 
and  awkward  to  move  from  place  to  place.  Besides,  it 
was  difficult  to  secure  the  necessary  films ;  sufficient  variety 
could  not  be  supplied  for  the  machines.  Only  one  com- 
pany was  engaged  at  the  time  in  their  production — the 
American  Kinetoscope  Company — and  the  only  studio  in 
operation  was  at  Orange  in  New  Jersey,  the  output  of 
which  was  relatively  small.  Under  these  circumstances 
public  curiosity  could  not  be  sustained. 

The  difficulty  with  the  film  supply  presently  became  still 
more  acute.  The  American  company  learned  that  the 
Kinetoscope  was  being  manufactured  in  England,  and 
that  American  films  were  being  used  with  English 
machines.  As  manufacture  could  not  be  prevented,  owing 
to  Great  Britain  being  an  open  market,  and  as,  conse- 
quently, Paul  was  perfectly  justified  in  his  action,  the 
American  company  decided  on  a  novel  method  of  frus- 
trating Mr.  Paul's  efforts.  Two  agents,  Maguire  and 
Baucus,  came  to  London  and  endeavoured  to  corner  the 
English  market.  They  secured  the  output  of  Kinetoscope 
films  from  America,  and  declined  to  sell  them  to  anyone 
in  Great  Britain  who  did  not  possess  an  American-built 
machine.  The  result  was  that  all  the  purchasers  of  the 
Paul  Kinetoscopes  found  themselves  unable  to  secure 
further  films;  even  Paul  himself  could  not  obtain  supplies. 

The  Americans  regarded  the  outlook  with  complete  self- 
satisfaction.  They  believed  that  the  English  market  was 
within  their  grasp.  But  they  reckoned  without  their  host. 
Paul  was  determined  not  to  be  vanquished  so  easily, 
especially  as  he  had  sold  Kinetoscopes  to  customers  in  all 
parts  of  the  world,  and  had  a  steady  stream  of  buyers 
flocking  to  his  workshops  from  points  as  remote  as  Tokio, 
South  America,  and  New  Zealand.  Many  of  these  early 
purchasers  of  the  British-built  Kinetoscopes  have  since 
become  famous  in  the  world  of  cinematography  either  as! 
producers  or  manufacturers,  notably  Monsieur  Charles 
Pathe,  the  founder  of  the  celebrated  French  cinematograph 
film  manufacturing  establishment,  who  was  one  of  Paul's 
first  customers. 

D    2 


36  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

Now  although  Paul  had  manufactured  several  Kineto- 
scopes,  he  realised  the  disadvantages  of  the  instrument. 
Only  one  person  at  a  time  could  see  the  picture  in  anima- 
tion. What  was  required  in  order  to  popularise  moving 
pictures  was  to  devise  a  way  to  enable  several  hundreds, 
or  even  thousands,  of  people  to  witness  the  same  subject 
simultaneously. 

Paul's  first  idea  was  to  convert  the  ordinary  Kinetoscope 
into  a  projecting  apparatus.  While  he  was  quietly  con- 
sidering the  feasibility  of  this  scheme  he  was  introduced 
to  another  inventor  Mr.  Birt  Acres,  at  that  time  in  the 
employment  of  a  firm  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  dry 
plates  and  bromide  papers.  Acres  had  conceived  a 
mechanical  means  of  printing  on  bromide  paper  from  glass 
negatives  a  number  of  copies  of  a  subject  at  a  very  rapid 
rate,  and  had  committed  to  paper  his  crude  suggestion. 
He  submitted  his  drawing  to  Paul.  The  negative  was  to 
be  set  in  a  frame,  beneath  which  the  bromide  paper 
travelled  over  rollers  in  a  continuous  length.  The  coil  of 
paper  was  to  move  a  certain  distance — the  length  of  the 
negative,  in  fact — and  then  to  pause;  when  a  flat  pad, 
carried  at  the  end  of  a  lever  beneath  the  paper,  was  to  rise 
up  and  press  the  latter  flatly  and  tightly  against  the  nega- 
tive. When  the  exposure  had  been  made  the  clamping 
device,  as  it  was  called,  fell  back,  and  permitted  the  paper 
to  travel  another  short  distance  to  bring  a  fresh  unexposed 
surface  beneath  the  negative,  when  the  same  cycle  of 
operations  was  repeated. 

When  Acres  brought  his  sketch  to  Paul,  the  latter  was 
wrestling  with  the  problem  of  photographing  objects  in 
motion.  It  was  imperative  to  perfect  a  camera  in  order 
to  defeat  the  machinations  of  the  Americans  bent  upon 
the  capture  of  the  English  film  market.  In  this  task, 
however,  the  most  satisfactory  means  of  securing  inter- 
mittent motion  was  the  stumbling  block.  He  thought  for 
a  time  that  Acres's  ingenious  method  of  printing  bromide 
prints  might  offer  a  clue.  Being  a  mechanical  engineer, 
Paul  recognised  the  inefficiency  of  Acres's  ideas  as  far  as 
its  application  to  cinematography  was  concerned,  because 


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iv  THE   ANIMATOGRAPH  37 

the  clamping  -device  was  not  actuated  by  a  positive  drive. 
But  the  rough  drawing  which  Acres  had  made  of  his 
bromide  printing  process  set  Paul  thinking,  and  gave  birth 
in  the  end  to  an  entirely  different  project. 

His  efforts  were  accelerated  by  the  tactics  of  Maguire 
and  Baucus,  and  it  was  not  long  before  he  produced  a 
camera  working  with  an  intermittent  motion.  With  this 
camera  some  excellent  films  were  obtained,  and  in  the  first 
instance  these  were  employed  with  the  Kinetoscope.  The 
purchasers  of  the  Paul  machines  consequently  experienced 
no  difficulty  whatever  in  getting  all  the  films  they  wanted, 
and  the  American  product  was  ignored.  It  was  not  com- 
parable with  the  English  films  in  excellence  or  variety, 
and  Maguire  and  Baucus  retired  from  the  scene  completely 
discomfited.  The  attempt  to  obtain  possession  of  the 
English  market  was  a  dismal  failure  owing  to  the  unex- 
pected enterprise  of  Robert  Paul. 

Paul  had  already  attempted  to  apply  the  principle 
governing  the  operation  of  the  Kinetoscope  to  the  projec- 
tion of  a  picture  upon  the  screen.  He  had  contrived  a~ 
special  lantern  through  which  the  film  was  run  continu- 
ously, the  revolution  of  the  shutter  serving  to  cut  out  each 
picture  on  the  film,  and  throw  it  individually  upon  the 
sheet,  thereby  bringing  it  into  a  stationary  position  for  a 
minute  fraction  of  a  second.  But  the  projecting  efforts 
were  somewhat  disheartening.  The  illusory  effect  was^^j 
produced;  but  the  picture  was  so  faint  as  to  render  the 
result  of  no  commercial  value.  The  conditions  attending 
the  watching  of  the  pictures  at  a  range  of  about  six  or 
eight  inches,  as  in  the  Kinetoscope,  and  at  one  of  ten 
times  as  many  feet,  when  thrown  upon  a  whitened  wall  or 
screen,  were  vastly  different.  The  shutter  had  to  revolve 
at  such  a  rapid  rate  to  prevent  blurring  that  a  sufficient 
volume  of  light  could  not  be  passed  through  each  picture 
in  the  short  interval  the  shutter  was  open — less  than 
1  / 1, oooth  of  a  second — so  the  resultant  image  was  faint 
and  ill-defined. 

It  was  evident  that  the  film  would  have  to  be  brought 
momentarily,  by  some  means  or  other,  into  a  fixed  position 


38  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

behind  the  lens,  so  as  to  enable  sufficient  light  to  pass 
through  to  the  screen,  to  yield  a  picture  comparing  with 
that  of  a  slide  projected  from  a  magic  lantern ;  and, 
further,  that  the  picture  would  have  to  be  moved  during 
its  eclipse  by  the  shutter,  in  order  to  allow  the  next  image 
to  be  brought  into  place.  In  other  words,  instead  of  the 
film  moving  forwards  continuously,  it  would  have  to 
advance  with  a  jerky  or  intermittent  motion  while  the 
shutter  was  passing  across  the  lens,  and  cutting  off  the 
light  from  the  screen. 

Paul  concentrated  his  energies  upon  this  problem.  It 
was  by  no  means  a  simple  undertaking,  for  there  were  no 
previous  efforts  in  the  same  direction  to  assist  him.  The 
great  point  was  how  to  bring  successive  pictures  into  posi- 
tion before  the  lens.  He  thought  out  a  clamping  device, 
which  is  known  as  the  "gate,"  and  which  he  attached 
behind  the  lens.  This  gate  was  formed  of  two  parts,  one 
fixed  and  the  other  having  a  swinging  or  opening  move- 
ment. The  fixed  part  was  pierced  with  an  aperture  which 
could  be  reduced  by  a  sliding  diaphragm.  The  aperture 
of  the  second  part  was  of  the  same  shape  and  dimensions 
as  the  picture  on  the  film.  The  film  was  wound  on  a  spool, 
and  from  this  it  passed  through  the  gate  and  thence  over  a 
sprocket,  the  teeth  of  which  engaged  with  the  perforations 
in  the  edge  of  the  celluloid  band. 

The  sprocket  had  to  move  intermittently,  in  such  a  way 
that  a  length  of  film  corresponding  to  the  depth  of  a 
picture  was  drawn  through  the  gate  at  each  movement, 
while  the  shutter  momentarily  cut  off  the  light,  otherwise 
there  would  have  been  a  confusion  of  two  consecutive 
pictures  projected  at  the  same  time.  How  this  movement 
was  evolved  is  described  in  Chapter  VII.  It  seems  a 
simple  task,  but  it  proved  exasperatingly  difficult  to  secure 
accuracy,  smoothness  of  motion,  and  the  steadiness  of  the 
picture  when  thrown  on  the  screen. 

About  three  o'clock  one  morning,  in  the  early  months 
of  1895,  the  quietness  of  Hatton  Garden  was  disturbed  by 
loud  and  prolonged  shouts.  The  police  rushed  hurriedly 
to  the  building  whence  the  cries  proceeded,    and   found 


iv  THE   ANIMATOGRAPH  39 

Paul  and  his  colleagues  in  their  workshop,  giving  vent  to 
whole-hearted  exuberance  of  triumph.  They  had  just 
succeeded  in  throwing  the  first  perfect  animated  pictures 
upon  a  screen.  To  compensate  the  police  for  their  fruit- 
less investigation,  the  film,  which  was  40  feet  in  length 
and  produced  a  picture  7  feet  square,  was  run  through 
the  special  lantern  for  their  edification.  They  regarded 
the  strange  spectacle  as  ample  compensation,  and  had  the 
satisfaction  of  being  the  first  members  of  the  public  to  see 
moving  pictures  thrown  upon  the  screen. 

In  February,  1896,  the  first  public  demonstration  w7ith  this 
projection  apparatus,  described  as  the  "Theatrograph," 
was  given  at  the  Finsbury  Technical  College,  and  it  caused 
a  thrill  of  excitement  and  interest.  A  few  days  later,  on 
February  28th,  1896,  the  apparatus  was  shown  in  the 
library  of  the  Royal  Institution.  Again  it  stirred  en- 
thusiasm, and  Mr.  Robert  Paul  was  congratulated  warmly 
upon  the  success  of  his  work  by  many  of  the  leading 
British  scientists  of  the  day.  This  was  the  first  demon- 
stration of  animated  photography  before  a  scientific  insti- 
tution in  Great  Britain.  The  films  displayed  were  those 
which  had  been  taken  by  the  patient  experimenter  and  his 
collaborators  for  the  Kinetoscope,  and  included,  among 
other  things,  a  "Shoeblack  at  work  in  a  London  street," 
and  of  "A  Rough  Sea  at  Dover." 

The  fact  that  the  display  was  given  before  one  of  the 
foremost  scientific  bodies  in  the  world  stamped  it  as  being 
a  development  of  signal  importance.  The  interest  it 
created  was  universal.  Among  those  who  saw  the  demon- 
stration was  Lady  Harris,  the  wife  of  the  famous 
impresario,  Sir  Augustus  Harris,  who  evinced  the  keenest 
enthusiasm  in  the  apparatus,  and  who  plied  the  experi- 
menter with  searching  questions  as  to  how  the  apparent 
animation  was  obtained. 

Next  morning  Paul  received  an  urgent  invitation  from 
Sir  Augustus  Harris  to  join  him  at  breakfast.  The  latter 
had  heard  from  Lady  Harris  all  about  the  remarkable 
exhibition  at  the  Royal  Institution,  and,  with  a  showman's 
keen  instinct,  desired  to  glean  further  details  without  delay. 


4o  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

He  said  that  he  had  heard  in  Paris  of  a  French  invention 
similar  to  Paul's.  This  took  the  English  experimenter 
by  surprise,  for  he  had  been  labouring  in  absolute  ignor- 
ance that  other  men  were  at  work  in  the  same  field. 
However,  the  impresario  was  on  business  bent.  He  saw 
the  possibilities  of  the  Theatrograph  as  a  form  of  amuse- 
ment, and  Paul  was  asked  if  he  were  willing  to  permit 
its  being  exploited  at  Olympia,  which  Harris  had 
acquired. 

"Well,  I  don't  know,"  rejoined  the  experimenter.  "I 
have  no  idea  of  its  value  from  the  public  point  of  view." 
He  thought  that  the  indifference  of  the  British  public  to 
the  Kinetoscope  did  not  augur  well  for  the  new  develop- 
ment. 

"Now  look  here,"  continued  Sir  Augustus  Harris.  "It 
won't  draw  the  public  for  more  than  a  month.  They  soon 
get  tired  of  these  novelties.  Are  you  prepared  to  come  in 
on  sharing  terms,  say,  50  per  cent,  of  the  receipts?  Do 
you  agree  ?  " 

Paul  was  somewhat  doubtful  of  the  results,  but  he 
acquiesced,  and  the  agreement  was  drawn  up  there  and 
then.  The  sequel  showed  how  ill-founded  his  apprehen- 
sions had  been.  The  Theatrograph  caught  the  popular 
fancy,  and  proved  the  most  powerful  amusement-magnet 
at  Olympia.  It  was  the  first  picture  palace  in  the  world, 
that  is  to  say,  the  first  establishment  devoted  exclusively 
to  the  projection  of  moving  pictures  as  a  complete  enter- 
tainment. From  it  the  whole  modern  development  of 
cinematography  may  be  said  to  have  sprung. 

Indeed,  it  is  difficult  to  realise  the  effect  produced  upon 
the  world  at  large,  through  the  skill  and  industry  of 
Robert  W.  Paul.  So  far  as  Great  Britain  is  concerned,  he 
certainly  fathered  the  enterprise  of  animated  photography, 
as  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  in  British  cinematographic 
circles  he  is  known  popularly  as  "Daddy  Paul."  The 
lapse  of  time  has  not  effected  any  essential  change  in  the 
construction  of  the  apparatus.  The  camera  and  projector 
as  used  to-day  are  fundamentally  the  same  as  those  Paul 


IV 


THE   ANIMATOGRAPH  41 


first  employed.  Modifications  have  been  made  in  details 
of  the  mechanism,  but  they  are  of  slight  importance. 
When  the  outcry  against  the  danger  of  the  cinematograph 
was  raised  in  the  early  days  of  the  industry,  as  a  result  of 
the  fire  at  the  Charity  Bazaar  in  Paris,  it  was  found  that 
Paul  had  realised  the  danger  and  had  endeavoured  to 
guard  against  it,  though  his  idea,  being  somewhat  pre- 
mature, was  disregarded  at  the  time. 

The  success  of  the  "  TJie^trog_rapi^''  at  Olympia  caused 
a  wholesale  demand  for  the  new  marvel.  People  wanted 
to  attach  the  device  to  existing  magic  lanterns,  so  that 
animated  pictures  could  be  produced  upon  the  screen 
whenever  desired.  Paul  still  cherished  such  little  faith 
in  his  invention  that  he  sold  the  projector  attachment  for 
the  small  sum  of  £$  ($25),  and  it  could  be  fixed  to  any 
lantern.  He  was  inundated  with  orders  from  all  parts  of 
the  world.  Many  enthusiasts  acquired  a  complete  pro- 
jecting outfit,  the  price  of  which  at  that  time  was  about 
£%o  ($400).  The  capacity  of  the  workshop  in  Hatton 
Garden  proved  quite  inadequate  to  the  demand.  The  men 
worked  night  and  day  turning  out  the  projecting  ap- 
paratus, and  the  sale  aggregated  several  hundreds  sterling 
per  week  during  the  years  1896  and  1897.  Provincial 
showmen  lost  no  time  in  acquiring  the  novelty,  or  arranged 
with  the  inventor  to  provide  such  an  item  in  their  pro- 
grammes. Within  a  short  time  twenty  machines  were 
being  operated  under  Paul's  personal  direction  in  the 
provinces. 

London  was  by  no  means  backward  in  following  up  the 
development.  The  first  to  introduce  moving  pictures  to  a 
metropolitan  vaudeville  audience  was  Mr.  Moul,  the  ener- 
getic manager  of  the  Alhambra  Theatre.  Like  Sir  Augus- 
tus Harris,  however,  he  regarded  it  merely  as  a  nine-days' 
wonder,  and  did  not  think  that  the  sensation  it  had  created 
could  be  sustained  for  more  than  a  week  or  so,  which 
shows  how  even  the  most  astute  showman  may  sometimes 
err  in  gauging  the  public  taste,  and  also  parenthetically 
the  professional  estimation  of  the  idea.     An  arrangement 


42  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

was  made  whereby  Paul  undertook  to  give  a  display  with 
the  "  Animatograph  " — this  name  had  been  substituted  for 
the  original  "  Theatrografxh  " — at  the  Alhambra  Theatre, 
for  a  fortnight  from  March  25th,  1896.  According  to  the 
terms  of  the  contract,  if  the  display  proved  popular,  it  was 
to  be  prolonged  upon  the  same  terms  until  moving  pictures 
fell  from  public  favour.  That  engagement  of  fourteen 
days  grew  into  one  of  four  years  !  For  over  1,000  nights 
Paul  personally  superintended  his  moving  pictures  at  the 
Alhambra ;  and  then  retired  only  because  of  pressure  of 
work  in  other  directions.  Of  course,  other  music  halls 
in  the  metropolis  acquired  the  apparatus.  Operators  were 
scarce,  and  they  could  not  be  trained  rapidly  enough  to 
meet  the  demand.  As  a  rule,  men  manipulating  the  lime- 
light in  the  theatres  were  found  to  be  the  most  suitable 
for  the  purpose,  and  they  readily  accepted  an  opportunity 
to  earn  £$  ($20)  per  week  for  a  few  minutes'  work 
every  day.  Times  have  changed  since  then,  and  to-day 
operators  can  be  secured  for  about  half  that  sum  as  weekly 
wage. 

At  one  time  in  the  early  days  Paul  had  no  less  than 
eight  theatres  in  London  demanding  his  personal  attend- 
ance, involving  a  nightly  journey  of  twenty  miles.  It  is 
significant  of  the  tremendous  enthusiasm  that  was  aroused 
by  the  moving  pictures  that  the  managers  of  the  various 
halls  had  to  arrange  their  programmes  to  suit  the  conveni- 
ence of  the  operator,  so  that  there  might  be  no  interference 
with  his  carefully  prepared  time-table  of  his  evening's 
movements  from  one  place  to  another. 

The  exigencies  of  the  manufacture  of  apparatus  and  films 
became  at  last  of  such  a  character  that  Paul  found  the 
strain  of  operating  to  be  intolerable,  so  he  retired  from 
active  work  in  the  projecting  world.  His  film  manufac- 
turing business  attained  considerable  proportions,  and  this 
was  continued  until  the  latter  part  of  1908,  when  he  aban- 
doned all  active  participation  in  the  industry  he  had 
initiated,  to  devote  himself  to  his  work  on  precision  instru- 
ments for  electrical  measurements.  His  association  with 
cinematography    to-day    is    very    slight,    being    confined 


rv 


THE   CINEMATOGRAPH  43 


mostly  to  collaboration  with  eminent  physicists  and 
scientists  in  illustrating  scientific  subjects  by  the  aid  of 
motion  photography. 

The  Cinematograph. 

While  Robert  W.  Paul  was  busy  in  his  laboratory, 
problems  identical  with  his  own  were  engaging  the  atten- 
tion of  French  experimenters,  and  notably  of  Messrs. 
Lumiere  and  Sons,  of  Paris  and  Lyons,  a  firm  famous  in 
the  manufacture  of  photographic  apparatus,  dry  plates,  and 
paper,  whose  efforts  to  solve  the  problem  of  natural  colour 
photography  are  well  known  to  the  world.  Their  attention"^ 
like  Paul's,  was  first  directed  to  this  new  field  by  the 
Kinetoscope,  which  made  its  appearance  in  France  about-i 
1893.  Messrs.  Lumiere  instantly  realised  its  drawbacks 
and  limitations,  the  greatest  of  which,  from  their  point  of 
view,  was  the  fact  that  the  long  ribbon  of  instantaneous 
pictures  was  visible  to  one  person  only.  Then  again  they 
considered  the  number  of  pictures  shown  per  second — 
thirty — to  be  too  high. 

They  sought  to  devise  an  apparatus  operating  with  an 
intermittent  action,  whereby  a  short  length  of  film  corre- 
sponding to  the  depth  of  a  picture  was  jerked  into  position 
behind  the  lens  while  the  light  was  eclipsed  by  the  shutter, 
and  afterwards  to  project  the  same  pictures  by  a  similar 
mechanism. 

With  the  Kinetoscope  as  a  basis  they  set  to  work,  and, 
by  means  of  a  reciprocating  motion  given  to  a  hook  frame 
under  the  movement  of  a  triangular  piece  of  mechanism, 
they  succeeded  in  stopping  and  starting  the  film  alternately 
with  such  a  degree  of  nicety  that  the  successive  sections 
of  film  were  brought  into  position  before  the  lens  without 
damaging  the  guiding  perforating  holes  or  films.  This 
constituted  the  salient  feature  of  the  Lumiere  device  and  the 
fundamental  principle  of  the  patent. 

The  Lumiere  camera  was  distinctly  ingenious,  simple 
and  positive  in  its  action,  as  well  as  being  light  and  com- 
pact. The  mechanism  whereby  the  film  was  jerked  down 
sufficiently  after    each    exposure    to    bring    another    sec- 


44  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

tion  of  sensitised  surface  before  the  lens,  may  be  likened 
to  two  projecting  fingers  which  engaged  with  a  hole  on 
either  side  of  the  film.  These  two  pins,  or  hooks,  by  the 
revolving  action  of  a  triangular  eccentric,  were  brought 
forward  towards  the  film  and  engaged  with  the  perfora- 
tions. When  the  shutter  swung  across  the  lens,  thus 
cutting  off  the  light,  this  pair  of  fingers  dropped  down, 
smartly  jerking  the  film  with  them.  The  latter  was  then 
gripped  and  held  firmly  in  position  during  the  next 
exposure,  when  the  two  fingers  withdrew  from  the  per- 
forations, rose  sharply  upwards,  and  clutched  the  film  once 
more  by  the  next  pair  of  perforations. 

While  the  Lumiere  experimenters  adopted  the  width  of 
film  used  in  the  Kinetoscope  and  secured  pictures  of  the 
same  dimensions,  yet  they  made  an  important  deviation 
from  Edison's  idea.  Instead  of  making  four  perforations^ 
per  picture  on  either  side  of  the  film  at  regular  intervals,  ' 
they  made  just  one  round  hole  on  each  side  of  the  image. 
These  perforations  were  placed  20  millimetres — approxi-"- 
mately  4/5  inch — apart.  The  reason  for  this  deviation 
from  the  Edison  method  was  that  they  had  refrained  from 
the  use  of  toothed  sprockets  such  as  Edison  and  Paul  had 
adopted,  and  which  had  to  mesh  with  the  film  so  as  to  feed 
it  regularly  and  steadily  forward  before  the  lens  in  both 
the  camera  and  the  projector.  From  the  mechanical  point 
of  view  theirs  was  a  preferable  method,  inasmuch  as  the 
comparative  closeness  of  the  perforations  in  the  Edison 
gauge  somewhat  weakens  the  strength  of  the  film,  and  can 
easily  result  in  tearing. 

There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  Messrs.  Lumiere 
were  in  ignorance  of  the  efforts  of  Paul,  in  just  the  same 
way  as  the  British  investigator  was  oblivious  of  the  work 
of  the  Frenchmen.  In  France  the  Kinetoscope  failed,  as 
it  did  in  England  and  the  United  States.  From  the 
French  point  of  view  a  unique  opportunity  existed  to  estab- 
lish a  new  industry;  accordingly  they  manufactured  several 
films  upon  their  principle. 

The  original  bands  of  pictures  were  17  metres — nearly 
56  feet — in  length.  Unfortunately  for  the  Lumiere  firm, 
the  Kinetoscope  had,  thanks  to  Paul,  been  purchased  more 


IV 


THE   CINEMATOGRAPH 


45 


generally  than  was  at  first  thought  possible ;  while  Paul 
had  marketed  in  England  a  considerable  number  of  films 
carrying  the  Edison  standard  perforation.  The  result  was 
that  they  could  not  dispose  of  their  films  to  people  whoH 
were  already  possessed  of  the  moving  picture  machine,  and 
who  demanded  films  of  the  Edison  gauge.  Messrs... 
Lumiere  ultimately  abandoned  the  single  perforation  on 
either  side  of  the  picture  in  favour  of  that  which  had  come 
into  vogue  through  the  Kinetoscope  and  the  work  of  Paul. 
The  early  Lumiere  projector  was  very  interesting. 
Realising  the  high  inflammability  of  the  celluloid  film, 
and  the  intense  heat  produced  by  the  focussing  of  the 
electric  arc  light  through  the  condenser  upon  the  film, 
the  experimenters  sought  to  remove  the  danger  of  fire  by 


Fig.  4.— The  Early  Lumiere  Projecting  System  Showing  Water 
Condenser  B. 


counteracting  the  heat  production  of  the  rays  of  light.  A 
spherical  bottle,  filled  with  water,  was  placed  between  the 
electric  arc  and  the  lens  to  act  as  condenser,  Fig.  4.  The 
bottle  B  was  encased  in  a  metal  cylinder  E,  fixed  to  the 
front  of  the  lantern  A  by  four  rods,  each  terminating  in 
a  screw  V.  The  metal  cylinder  E  was  continued  forwards 
in  the  form  of  a  tube  F,  the  end  of  which  was  fitted  with 
a  hinged  shutter  G  carrying  a  small  piece  of  ground  glass 
H.  When  the  film  was  set  in  motion  this  hinged  shutter 
was  lifted  and  laid  back  upon  the  top  of  the  tube  to  which 
it  was  attached. 

The   spherical    bottle,    which    was    filled    with    distilled 


46  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

water  to  which  a  few  drops  of  acetic  acid  were  added,  acted 
in  exactly  the  same  way  as  the  glass  condenser  of  to-day. 
But  it  possessed  this  advantage.  The  luminous  rays  were 
concentrated,  and  there  was  no  loss  of  luminous  light; 
only  the  heat  rays  were  absorbed  almost  entirely  by  the 
water.  Another  beneficial  result  was  that  the  light  thrown 
through  the  picture,  and  thence  on  to  the  screen,  was 
whiter,  because  the  condenser  glass  is  greenish,  and  imparts 
that  tint  to  the  light  passing  through  it. 

In  the  course  of  about  30  or  40  minutes  the  water  under 
the  action  of  the  heat  rays  commenced  to  boil,  but  no 
inconvenience  resulted.  A  piece  of  coke  D,  attached  to  a 
short  length  of  wire  C,  was  suspended  in  the  decanter  and 
placed  just  below  the  surface  of  the  water,  thus  causing  it 
to  boil  with  complete  evenness ;  there  was  no  spurting  of 
the  contents,  and  no  bubbling  to  interfere  with  the  light. 
If  the  sphere  of  water  were  removed  or  broken  during  the 
operation  of  the  lantern,  as  the  condensation  of  the  light 
rays  immediately  ceased  there  was  no  danger  of  the  film 
being  set  alight.  It  may  be  pointed  out,  in  passing,  that 
Edison  introduced  a  bulb  of  alum  water  between  the  elec- 
tric lamp  and  the  film  as  a  heat  absorbent  in  his 
Kinetoscope. 

Although  highly  efficient,  this  expedient  possessed  cer- 
tain drawbacks,  and  consequently  in  the  course  of  time  it 
was  superseded  by  the  glass  condenser.  Mechanical 
ingenuity  succeeded  in  devising  a  means  of  minimising  the 
danger  of  combustion  or  provided  some  method  of  smother- 
ing it  in  its  incipient  stage. 

Although  the  Lumiere  invention  proved  a  great  success 
in  France,  and  was  the  first  commercial  apparatus  pro 
duced  in  that  country,  it  did  not  get  a  foothold  in  Great 
Britain,  owing  to  the  contemporaneous  work  of  Paul. 
The  Lumiere  apparatus  was  a  well-built  mechanism, 
typical  of  French  workmanship,  but  if  anything  rather 
too  light  for  general  wear  and  tear.  It  was  introduced 
to  the  English  public  by  Professor  Treuw£,  the  famous 
French  conjurer,  at  the  Regent  Street  Polytechnic  in  1896, 
but  failed  to  provoke  a  sensation,  because  Paul's  "Theatro- 


iv  THE    CINEMATOGRAPH  47 

graph  "  had  already  been  seen  at  Olympia  and  held  first 
place  in  public  esteem.  On  the  other  hand,  it  created 
widespread  interest  in  the  United  States,  where,  at  the 
time  of  its  arrival,  projection  upon  the  screen  was 
unknown.  Paul's  machine  had  not  penetrated  to  North 
America,  because  the  British  market  demanded  his  whole 
attention.  It  is  a  curious  irony  of  fate  that,  although 
animated  photography  was  first  made  possible  in  America 
by  the  ingenuity  of  an  American  inventor,  and  the  only 
films  then  available  were  the  product  of  the  Edison  "Black 
Maria  "  at  Orange,  yet  it  was  a  French  apparatus  which 
laid  the  foundations  of  the  cinematograph  industry  in  the 
United  States.  The  product  of  Messrs.  Lumiere  was  in- 
troduced mainly  through  the  enterprise  of  one  man,  Mr. 
Richard  G.  Hollaman,  the  energetic  president  of  the  Eden 
Mus£e  Company. 

Mr.  Hollaman  saw  the  Kinetoscope  at  the  Chicago 
World's  Fair  in  the  summer  of  1893,  but  as  it  was  crude 
and  did  not  arouse  great  enthusiasm,  he  took  no  especial 
interest  in  it.  In  the  following  year,  however,  he  acquired 
an  improved  Kinetoscope  from  Berlin,  which  had  been 
made  by  the  celebrated  electrical  engineering  firm,  Siemens 
and  Halske.  This  machine  was  circular  in  shape,  and 
showed  the  pictures  in  movement  in  much  the  same  way 
as  Edison's  contrivance.  Two  of  the  machines  were  in- 
stalled in  the  Eden  Mus£e  and  remained  there  for  six 
months.  At  the  end  of  that  time  they  were  abandoned  for 
the  reason  that  no  new  films  could  be  obtained. 

In  the  spring  of  1896  an  exhibition  was  given  in  a  shop 
in  Park  Row,  New  York  City.  In  this  instance  the  pic- 
tures were  thrown  upon  the  screen.  The  machine  had 
been  devised  and  built  by  an  experimenter  named  Latham, 
but  it  was  exceedingly  faulty.  The  pictures  shown  de- 
picted two  prize  fighters,  but  the  images  vibrated  so 
violently  on  the  screen,  and  were  so  scratched  and  imper- 
fect, that  the  eyes  of  spectators  were  subjected  to  a  fearful 
strain,  and  the  apparatus  was  commercially  valueless.  Mr. 
Hollaman  sought  out  the  inventor  with  a  view  to  the 
perfection  of  the  device  for  his  theatre,  but  learned  that 


48  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

lack  of  capital  prevented  Latham  from  perfecting  his 
apparatus. 

A  little  later  the  president  of  the  Eden  Mus£e  received 
a  communication  from  a  firm  named  Raff  and  Gammon. 
They  offered  him  the  State  rights  for  a  moving  picture 
machine  which  had  been  designed  by  Edison,  and  of  which 
they  were  empowered  to  dispose  on  his  behalf.  They 
invited  Mr.  Hollaman  to  a  demonstration  at  Koster  and 
Bial's  theatre,  where  they  threw  a  picture  upon  the  screen 
which  measured  about  10  feet  in  width  by  6  feet  in  depth. 
Mr.  Hollaman  has  told  me  that  he  recalled  very  vividly 
two  of  the  films  he  saw  there.  One  depicted  "Mammy 
washing  her  child,"  while  the  other  was  "The  Gardener 
playing  the  Hose."  Both  these  films  were  made  by 
Lumiere  and  Sons  at  Lyons. 

In  the  autumn  of  1896  the  Lumiere  apparatus  appeared 
in  the  United  States.  It  was  introduced  by  Mr.  Hurd, 
acting  as  agent  for  the  French  manufacturers,  and  this 
was  the  first  practical  cinematograph  apparatus  to  be  seen 
in  North  America.  A  demonstration  was  given,  and  Mr. 
Hollaman,  realising  the  tremendous  strides  it  represented 
in  the  projection  of  moving  pictures,  made  a  contract  for 
its  installation  at  the  Eden  Musee.  The  picture  thrown 
on  the  screen  by  this  projector  measured  22  by  16  feet. 
From  the  day  the  "Cinematographe  "  was  first  shown  to 
the  public  in  the  Eden  Mus^e  in  1896,  it  has  constituted 
a  permanent  feature  of  the  place.  In  fact,  Mr.  Hollaman 
has  been  the  pioneer  of  all  developments  in  the  field  of 
cinematography  in  North  America.  The  French  machines 
had  been  in  use  for  some  time,  when  Lumiere's  agent, 
who  had  let  them  out  on  lease,  suddenly  called  in  all  the 
projectors  and  retired  from  active  operations  in  the  United 
States.  Another  machine  had  to  be  secured  for  the  Eden 
Mus£e,  and  for  three  months  a  Joli  instrument  was  used, 
followed  by  an  American  apparatus  operated  by  its  maker, 
Eberhard  Schneider. 

Another  change  was  made  in  September,  1897,  when 
Mr.  Charles  Urban,  now  identified  with  Kinemacolor, 
but   at    that   time   acting   as   salesman    for    Maguire   and 


iv  THE    CINEMATOGRAPH  49 

Baucus,  who  had  endeavoured  in  vain  to  oust  Paul  in 
London  and  who  had  retired  from  the  scene  after  meeting 
with  failure,  approached  the  Eden  Mus£e  with  a  new 
projector,  which  was  installed.  Some  time  later  Urban 
introduced  a  new  machine  which  he  had  made  himself, 
and  as  it  possessed  several  improvements  it  was  adopted. 
This  was  the  first  "Bioscope,"  as  it  was  called,  that  was 
ever  shown  to  the  public. 

Shortly  afterwards  Maguire  and  Baucus,  in  company 
with  Urban,  left  the  United  States  for  London,  to  establish 
an  English  cinematograph  firm  under  the  name  of  the 
Warwick  Trading  Company.  In  1900  Mr.  Hollaman 
secured  the  services  of  Frank  Cannock,  an  expert  operator 
and  mechanician,  for  his  cinematograph  department, 
which  had  now  become  of  paramount  importance ;  and 
since  that  date  the  latter  has  manufactured  all  the  machines 
required  by  the  Eden  Musee. 

I  have  given  a  brief  outline  of  the  most  interesting 
chapter  in  the  story  of  cinematography,  the  epoch  in  which 
experimenters  in  different  countries  were  struggling  to 
perfect  the  same  idea,  independently  of  one  another,  and 
by  different  methods.  Several  other  investigators  were 
engaged  in  the  quest,  but  their  work  was  not  of  such 
importance  as  that  of  Edison,  Paul,  or  Lumiere.  The 
first  evolved  the  crude  idea,  and  the  latter  two,  in  their 
respective  countries,  produced  successful  apparatuses  en- 
tirely different  from  one  another.  The  work  of  Robert 
Paul  should  command  the  greatest  appreciation ;  for  the 
Bioscope,  which  amuses  the  multitude  from  morning  to 
night  every  day  between  the  two  Poles,  is  fundamentally 
the  same  as  that  which  he  introduced  to  the  theatrical 
world  for  the  first  time  on  March  25th,  1896. 


CHAPTER    V 

HOW    THE    CELLULOID    FILM    IS    MADE 

I  have  already  shown  how  the  perseverance  and  in- 
genuity of  Eastman  and  Walker  aided  in  solving  the 
problem  of  animated  photography.  Their  film  was  used 
for  the  first  time  experimentally  in  the  United  States  as 
far  back  as  1889,  although  it  did  not  enter  the  general 
market  until  about  two  years  later.  From  that  time  there 
was  an  increasing  demand  from  the  host  of  experimenters 
for  large  quantities  of  the  narrow,  thin  sensitised  strip  of 
celluloid.  As  the  demand  increased  the  chemists  as- 
sociated with  the  subject  redoubled  their  efforts ;  their 
product  was  still  far  from  perfection,  and  even  to-day  they 
will  admit  that  many  abstruse  problems  remain  to  be 
unravelled. 

Although  the  present-day  consumption  of  celluloid  film 
for  cinematograph  purposes  is  enormous,  aggregating 
several  million  feet  per  week,  the  manufacturing  process 
is  of  such  a  peculiar  character  that  the  number  of  firms 
identified  with  its  production  can  be  counted  upon  the 
fingers  of  one  hand.  In  the  United  States  it  is  controlled 
by  the  Eastman  Kodak  Company,  who  have  extensive 
factories  at  Rochester  in  the  State  of  New  York,  and  a 
large  establishment  at  Harrow  in  England.  In  France 
Messrs.  Lumiere  and  Sons,  and  in  Germany  the  Gaevert 
firm,  have  large  factories.  British  effort  is  represented  by 
the  Austin-Edwards  Company,  which  produces  an  excel- 
lent film,  but  the  home  industry  is  in  its  infancy.  The 
three  first-named  firms  supply  almost  the  entire  demand. 
The  Eastman  firm  has  the  largest  output,  about  3,500,000 


ch.  v     HOW  THE  CELLULOID  FILM  IS  MADE       51 

feel  per  week,  which  is  due  to  the  fact  that  in  the 
United  States  there  are  over  14,000  picture  palaces  open 
every  day  from  morning  until  midnight,  and  many  large 
firms  engaged  in  the  preparation  of  the  film  subjects. 
Most  of  the  Eastman  supply  is  used  in  the  United  States 
and  Great  Britain.  Aside  from  it  and  the  French  and 
German  products,  some  of  the  large  European  film  pro- 
ducers prepare  their  own  stock,  as  the  celluloid  base  is 
called.  If  all  these  totals  were  added  together,  the  sum 
of  them  would  show  something  like  6,000,000  feet  of  film, 
in  both  negatives  and  positives,  consumed  every  week. 

Each  country  has  millions  of  pounds  invested  in  the 
enterprise.  It  is  difficult  to  gauge  the  proportions  of  the 
entire  industry.  If  all  its  varied  branches  are  taken  into 
consideration,  it  probably  ranks  as  one  of  the  largest  in 
the  world.  And  the  whole  of  this  development  has  taken 
place  within  twenty  years. 

In  order  to  gain  an  idea  of  one  branch  of  the  industry, 
the  manufacture  of  the  film,  one  must  pay  a  visit  to  the 
extensive  works  of  the  Eastman  Company,  the  plant  of 
which  is  able  to  turn  out  no  less  than  7,200,000  lineal  feet 
of  film  for  moving  pictures  every  week — truly  a  tremendous 
output.  This  capacity  has  not  been  taxed  to  the  utmost 
yet,  but  when  the  requisite  machinery  was  laid  down,  the 
company  decided  to  anticipate  the  future.  Should  the 
present  pace  of  development  be  maintained,  there  is  no 
doubt  that,  before  the  end  of  another  twenty  years,  this 
firm  will  find  its  present  installation  barely  sufficient  to 
meet  the  demand.  Continued  chemical  research  and 
improvement  of  processes  is  tending  to  reduce  the  cost  of 
the  material,  and  while  at  the  same  time  the  moving  picture 
business  itself  is  expanding  on  all  sides,  fresh  markets  are 
constantly  being  opened  up  for  the  products  of  the  manu- 
facturers. 

At  the  Eastman  works  is  to  be  seen  a  striking  illustra- 
tion of  the  growth  in  the  manufacture  of  celluloid  film. 
In  the  room  where  the  ingredients  are  mixed  together  there 
is  a  small  barrel,  which  will  hold  500  pounds  of  the  film 
mixture.     This  little  barrel,  together  with  another  of  the 

E    2 


52  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

same  capacity,  sufficed  to  meet  all  requirements  in  the 
year  1891.  In  the  same  building  is  a  battery  of  fifty  huge 
barrels,  each  with  eight  times  the  capacity  of  the  small 
one,  and  these  are  run  night  and  day  to  meet  the  present 
demand  for  the  material.  The  little  barrel  is  no  longer 
used ;  but  it  is  preserved  as  an  honoured  relic  of  the  past 
and  an  eloquent  witness  of  the  tremendous  growth  of  the 
film-manufacturing  industry  for  cinematography. 

The  ingredients  for  the  film  are  gun-cutton,  known 
technically  as  pyroxylin,  and  wood  alcohol.  The 
pyroxylin  is  prepared  by  treating  cellulose  devised  from 
such  vegetable  materials  as  flax  or  cotton  waste,  with  a 
mixture  of  sulphuric  and  nitric  acids.  The  ingredients  are 
associated  in  large  cylindrical  tanks  ranged  in  long  rows 
upon  the  upper  floor,  and  discharged  through  trap  doors 
into  the  barrels  beneath.  The  gun-cotton  is  then  dissolved 
in  the  alcohol  by  mechanically  rotating  the  huge  barrels. 
It  is  possible  to  treat  in  this  way  some  200,000  pounds  of 
material  at  one  time.  The  mixing  process  reduces  the 
gun-cotton  and  wood  alcohol  to  a  viscous  liquid  of  the 
consistency  of  extracted  honey,  which  substance  forms  the 
base  of  the  film,  or  support  for  the  sensitive  emulsion,  and 
is  known  technically  as  cellulose-nitrate. 

When  the  gun-cotton  has  been  dissolved  to  the  requisite 
degree,  the  syrup-like  mixture  is  drawn  from  the  barrels 
and  stored  in  cylindrical  tanks. 

The  next  step  is  the  conversion  of  the  mixture  into  sheets 
of  the  requisite  thinness.  It  is  not  rolled  out,  but  poured 
upon  suitably  polished  supports,  and  spreads  out,  like 
varnish,  in  a  thin  film.  The  Eastman  patent  specifies  three 
distinct  kinds  of  receptacle  for  the  pouring  process  :  a  long 
sheet  of  polished  glass,  an  endless  polished  metallic  belt, 
and  a  revolving  drum  having  a  highly  polished  surface. 
Any  of  the  three  will  produce  the  result;  and  in  each  case 
the  deposit  has  to  be  permitted  to  dry  to  a  certain  degree. 

When  the  drying  is  achieved,  the  thin  coating  of  trans- 
parent flexible  material,  resembling  a  skin,  is  stripped 
from  its  support  and  coated  with  the  sensitive  emulsion. 
The  latter  is  of  two  degrees  of  sensitiveness,  according  to 


[By  fermissio 
THE    MIXING    BARRE1 


Eastman  Kodak  Lompaitj. 


This  pii  lure  conveys  a  strikingMmpression  of  the  growth  ol  the  film  manufacturing  industry. 

Two  small  barrels,  each  holding   500  pounds,  made  all  the  him  base  or  "dope,"  as  it  is 

called,  in  iSqi.     The  larger  barrel  behind  holds  4,000  pounds. 


v         HOW  THE  CELLULOID  FILM  IS  MADE         53 

whether  the  film  is  to  be  used  as  a  negative  or  a  positive. 
The  former  is  of  the  very  highest  sensitiveness  to  light  that 
it  is  possible  to  obtain,  since  under  normal  circumstances 
it  is  only  exposed  for  the  fraction  of  a  second ;  while 
the  film  required  for  the  positive,  which  is  used  for  pro- 
jection, is  rendered  less  sensitive,  as  it  can  be  given  a 
longer  exposure  in  the  printing  operation. 

The  base,  with  its  sensitised  coating,  is  now  permitted 
to  become  dry  and  hard.  At  the  conclusion  of  this  opera- 
tion the  length  of  thin  celluloid  sheeting,  technically  called 
a  web,  which  is  about  3J  feet  wide,  is  slit  into  strips  of  the 
standard  width  now  used  in  all  cinematograph  cameras 
and  projectors — if  inches  wide. 

Extreme  care  has  to  be  taken  to  secure  a  uniform  thick- 
ness. The  plant  at  the  Rochester  works  has  reached  such 
a  degree  of  accuracy  that  the  thickness  of  the  film  which 
is  taken  from  the  polished  rolls,  although  the  web  measures 
2,000  feet  in  length,  does  not  vary  above  the  standard  by 
more  than  1 /4,000th  part  of  an  inch. 

As  I  have  already  said,  however,  after  all  this  care,  the 
product  is  far  from  being  perfect,  and  it  sometimes  displays 
strange  caprices.  They  are  most  pronounced  in  the 
tropics.  Owing  to  the  volatile  character  of  the  ingredients 
employed  in  its  manufacture,  the  film  undergoes  consider- 
able shrinkage  in  hot  climates  owing  to  evaporation.  I 
have  seen  film  shrunk  so  much  that  it  failed  to  conform 
with  the  standard  gauge,  and  the  teeth  of  the  sprocket  in 
the  printing  machine,  instead  of  engaging  with  the  holes, 
played  upon  the  outer  smooth  edges  of  the  film.  To  main- 
tain the  prime  condition  of  the  film  it  is  necessary  to  keep 
it  somewhat  moist,  and  accordingly  the  packing  boxes 
carry  a  certain  amount  of  damped  material.  But  in 
tropical  countries  where  the  heat  is  intense,  it  is  by  no 
means  a  simple  matter  to  keep  the  film  in  condition ;  and 
for  this  reason  it  is  often  difficult  to  secure  satisfactory 
pictures  of  scenes  in  tropical  countries.  A  firm  which  dis- 
patched an  operator  to  Central  America  to  secure  a  series  of 
scenic  and  industrial  films  failed  to  obtain  a  single  length  of 
pictures  worth  showing.     I  saw  the  results  of  the  expedi- 


54  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

Hon.  The  film  was  badly  distorted,  and  the  pictures  in 
some  instances  were  so  thin  or  indistinct  as  to  defy  pro- 
jection.    ,£500  ($2,500)  had  been  expended  without  result. 

There  is  another  eccentricity  displayed  occasionally  by 
some  films  in  tropical  climes,  which  is  difficult  to  explain. 
An  operator  will  expose  several  hundred  feet  of  film,  which, 
when  developed,  fails  to  show  the  slightest  sign  of  exposure. 
I  have  seen  the  results  of  a  first-class  cinematographer 
working  between  the  limits  of  Capricorn  and  Cancer.  His 
films  when  developed  were  as  clear  as  if  they  had  never 
been  exposed  to  the  action  of  light.  The  firm  took  one 
section  of  the  exposed  film  and  re-exposed  it  on  a  London 
street.  It  showed  on  development  the  image  of  London 
traffic,  being  as  bare  of  any  other  image  as  if  it  had  never 
seen  the  jungle.  Heat  and  dry  atmosphere  seem  to 
exercise  some  obscure  chemical  action,  which  prevents  the 
sensitive  surface  of  the  films  from  being  affected  by 
exposure;  yet  when  the  film  is  returned  to  a  naturally 
moist  climate,  like  that  of  England,  it  appears  to  recover 
its  original  qualities. 

As  the  component  parts  of  a  cinematograph  film  are  of 
an  inflammable  nature,  the  resultant  fabric  is  naturally 
also  highly  inflammable.  This  danger  in  the  early  days 
severely  menaced  the  development  of  the  industry,  especi- 
ally since  those  occupied  in  projection  were  careless  of  the 
most  elementary  precautions.  The  film,  after  passing 
through  the  lantern,  fell  a  dishevelled  mass  into  a 
basket,  where  it  formed  a  tangled  heap  of  thin  combustible 
material,  as  inflammable  as  petrol-soaked  shavings. 
Celluloid  emits  a  vapour  of  an  explosive  nature,  and  it  is 
always  dangerous  to  use  a  naked  light  in  its  close 
proximity.  Yet  custom  rendered  the  operator  heedless  of 
the  danger.  The  outcome  was  inevitable.  Legislation 
stepped  in  and  ordained  that  the  projector  should  be  en- 
cased in  a  steel  fire-proof  chamber  for  the  protection  of  the 
public.  The  result  was  that  the  cinematograph  was  barred 
from  many  places  where  the  magic  lantern  was  used. 

Moving  pictures  could  not  be  shown  at  such  establish- 
ments as  schools,  merely  because  they  did  not  possess  a 


v         HOW  THE  CELLULOID  FILM  IS  MADE         55 

fire-pr,pof  chamber  in  which  to  operate  them.  A  non- 
inflammable  film  was,  of  course,  the  next  demand.  To 
attempt  to  render  celluloid  non-combustible  was  akin  to 
rendering  gunpowder  non-explosive.  An  absolutely  new 
film-base  had  to  be  found.  Cellulose  as  a  basic  con- 
stituent could  not  be  dispensed  with — in  fact,  chemical 
research  has  not  yet  succeeded  in  discovering  an 
efficient  substitute.  Efforts  were  concentrated  upon  the 
treatment  of  the  cellulose  in  such  a  manner  as  to  prevent 
it  being  readily  combustible,  with  the  resultant  produc- 
tion of  the  preparation  known  as  cellulose-acetate,  which 
is  practically  non-inflammable.  But  while  this  substance 
complies  with  the  letter  of  the  law  and  does  not  burst 
into  flame,  it  does  melt,  however,  under  the  influence  of 
heat,  and  in  so  doing  sometimes  emits  copious  clouds  of 
smoke,  which  are  capable  of  producing  panic  in  an 
audience  quite  as  readily  as  an  outburst  of  flame. 

Under  ordinary  circumstances,  this  non-inflammable 
film  is  quite  safe  to  handle,  and  from  that  point  of  view 
is  adapted  for  the  purpose  of  exhibiting  in  buildings  where 
a  special  chamber  is  not  provided.  The  heat  produced  by 
the  focussed  rays  in  the  lantern,  or  the  inadvertent  contact 
of  a  naked  light,  do  not  promote  combustion.  The 
cellulose-acetate  merely  chars  or  melts,  the  action  being 
purely  local. 

The  celluloid  film  is  supplied  generally  in  lengths  of 
165  feet,  which  is  approximately  the  capacity  of  the 
average  film  box.  The  actual  picture  itself  upon  the  film 
measures  one  inch  in  width  by  f  of  an  inch  in  depth. 

The  question  naturally  arises  as  to  what  becomes  of 
the  films  which  have  passed  through  their  allotted  span  of 
life.  When  the  celluloid  film  was  first  placed  on  the 
market  this  material  was  of  a  certain  value.  The  sensi- 
tised gelatine  emulsion  was  stripped  off,  and  the  base  was 
converted  into  varnish.  But  this  practice  has  fallen  into 
disuse.  Practically  speaking,  old  films  have  no  economic 
value.  As  a  rule  they  are  burned.  If  the  junk  film  is 
obtained  in  sufficiently  large  quantities,  a  slightly  re- 
munerative  by-product  can   be   obtained   in    the   form    of 


56  MOVING   PICTURES  ch.  v 

metallic  silver  from  the  ashes,  but  the  yield  is  so  small 
and  silver  is  so  cheap  that  the  trouble  involved  does  not 
pay  unless  the  waste  is  destroyed  in  tremendous  bulk. 

This  is  the  era  of  the  profitable  utilisation  of  waste 
products,  and  no  doubt  a  large  fortune  is  awaiting  the 
chemist  who  succeeds  in  evolving  a  cheap  process  for 
turning  the  useless  cinematograph  film  to  commercial 
account.  Newspapers,  old  iron,  and  other  metals,  rubber, 
sawdust,  and  even  garbage,  possess  a  certain  economic 
value,  and  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  used  celluloid 
film  is  an  exception  to  this  general  rule  of  utilising  waste 
products.  One  by-product,  as  we  have  pointed  out,  is 
certain  of  reclamation — the  silver — but  the  other  con- 
stituents might  prove  just  as  valuable  if  a  cheap,  inexpen- 
sive method  were  contrived  for  their  commercial  reclama- 
tion. 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  STORY   OF  THE  PERFORATION  GAUGE 

We  have  seen  that  before  the  film  can  be  used  in  the 
camera  it  has  to  be  perforated  on  either  side  in  order  that 
successive  areas  of  film  §  of  an  inch  deep — the  equivalent 
of  a  picture — can  be  seized  and  brought  into  position 
behind  the  lens.  This  perforation  has  become  stan- 
dardised in  accordance  with  what  is  known  as  the  "Edison 
Standard  Gauge,"  which  is  64  perforations  per  foot  on 
either  side.  This  perforation  is  of  an  elongated  form, 
measuring  about  1/8  of  an  inch  in  width  by  approximately 
i/i6th  of  an  inch  in  depth. 

The  preliminary  operation  is  carried  out  with  a  machine, 
which  stamps  the  holes  by  means  of  specially  hardened 
steel  punches.  Extreme  care  has  to  be  taken  to  carry  out 
the  task  with  mathematical  accuracy,  in  order  that  the  film 
may  be  used  with  any  type  of  camera  and  projector. 
Without  it  steadiness  of  the  picture  upon  the  screen  is 
absolutely  impossible. 

It  seems  strange  that  all  films  should  have  to  be  per- 
forated according  to  the  Edison  system,  when  it  is  remem- 
bered that  the  first  commercial  cinematographic  apparatuses 
for  the  projection  of  pictures  upon  a  screen  were  made,  not 
by  Edison,  but  by  Paul  and  Lumiere,  who,  one  might 
think,  would  have  established  their  own  gauges.  This 
important  point  involves  an  interesting  little  story. 

In  the  very  earliest  days  of  cinematography,  when  a 
film  of  greater  width  was  used  than  at  present,  it  was 
advanced  by  friction.  Rollers,  or  clutches,  gripped  the 
edges  of  the  film  tightly,  and  moved  it  forward  the  desired 


58  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

extent.  But  their  action  was  uncertain.  Sometimes  the 
rollers  became  slack  and  the  film  slipped,  the  celluloid 
ribbon  varied  in  thickness  or  was  a  trifle  slippery,  with 
the  result  that  the  forward  movement  was  irregular,  and 
the  pictures  did  not  appear  in  rhythmic  succession.  Some 
were  askew,  others  were  overlapped  by  the  preceding 
or  succeeding  image,  or  a  wide  gap  was  left  between 
consecutive  pictures. 

In  order  to  overcome  the  drawback,  attempts  were  made 
to  devise  a  system  of  moving  the  film  forward  by  the  aid 
of  pins  engaging  with  holes  in  the  sides.  But  the  appara- 
tus employed  was  mechanically  defective.  The  film 
dragged,  and  the  holes  were  either  torn  or  became  so  worn 
that  they  did  not  engage  accurately.  Square  holes  were 
first  tried,  but  the  wear  and  tear  set  up  by  the  pins  or 
sprocket  teeth  soon  gave  them  a  circular  or  elongated 
shape.  Then  circular  perforations  were  adopted,  but  they 
soon  became  elliptical.  The  number  of  perforations  per 
picture  was  varied  also  in  the  hope  of  securing  steadiness 
of  the  film  both  in  the  camera  and  more  especially  in  pro- 
jection, but  every  effort  appeared  to  refuse  to  remove  the 
difficulty. 

One  of  the  early  investigators  was  discussing  the  subject 
one  night  with  Lord  Kelvin.  The  eminent  scientist 
became  deeply  interested  in  this  trouble  with  regard  to  the 
perforations,  and  the  disadvantages  of  the  respective 
shapes  shown  to  him.  After  a  few  minutes'  reflection,  he 
remarked,  "Why  not  use  perforations  of  triangular  form? 
They  will  not  wear  round  or  square.  They  will  always 
retain  their  shape  more  or  less,  and  at  all  events  will  give 
improved  steadiness  in  running."  The  advice  of  Lord 
Kelvin  was  followed,  and  the  triangular  holes  were  found 
to  give  the  best  results  achieved  up  to  that  time. 

Meanwhile  the  shape  of  the  perforations  and  the  gauge 
had  settled  itself  in  a  curious  manner.  The  kinetoscope 
appeared  with  small  rectangular  perforations,  numbering 
four  to  each  picture,  on  either  side  of  the  film.  Edison 
had  settled  on  this  plan  for  his  apparatus,  finding  that 
it  afforded  him  the  best  results.    The  machines  were  made 


vi        STORY  OF  THE  PERFORATION  GAUGE       59 

and  despatched  to  various  parts  of  the  world.  To  main- 
tain the  interest  in  the  novelty,  a  number  of  films  were 
prepared  and  sold  to  various  customers  possessing  the 
kinetoscope. 

When  Messrs.  Lumiere  brought  out  their  projecting 
apparatus,  only  one  brand  of  film  available  for  demonstra- 
tion purposes  was  on  the  market — that  made  for  the 
kinetoscope.  When  Paul  first  entered  the  manufacturing 
field,  he,  of  course,  prepared  films  for  use  with  the 
kinetoscope  of  his  own  manufacture,  and  he  naturally 
adopted  Edison's  gauge.  As  already  narrated,  Lumiere 
made  an  attempt  to  set  up  an  independent  gauge, 
with  one  hole  each  side  per  picture,  but  the  Edison  and 
Paul  films  with  an  identical  gauge  had  become  too  firmly 
established,  especially  as  the  famous  American  inventor 
commanded  the  situation  in  the  United  States.  There 
was  no  market  for  either  machines  or  films  deviating  from 
Edison's  gauge.  Exhibitors  who  had  bought  kineto- 
scopes  and  films,  when  they  acquired  a  Lumiere  projector, 
demanded  that  it  should  be  so  designed  as  to  use  the 
films  which  they  owned  already,  and  which  were  highly 
expensive.  When  other  film-picture  manufacturers  entered 
the  arena  they  followed  in  Edison's  footsteps,  because 
there  was  no  market  for  their  wares  if  they  did  otherwise 
Consequently  the  Edison  perforation  gauge  became  more 
and  more  firmly  established  as  time  progressed,  until  at 
last  it  became  regarded  as  the  standard.  It  must  be 
pointed  out  that  this  result  was  largely  attributable  to 
Paul,  who  became  the  largest  manufacturer  of  kinetoscope 
films  in  the  world. 

Yet  it  must  not  be  thought  that  the  settlement  came 
about  smoothly.  There  has  been  a  battle  of  the  gauges 
in  the  cinematographic  as  in  the  railway  world.  The 
Edison  standard  gauge  has  its  admitted  drawbacks,  the 
greatest  of  which  is  that  there  are  too  many  holes  per 
picture,  which  weaken  the  film  and  tend  to  precipitate 
tearing.  Two,  or  even  one,  hole  per  picture  on  either  side 
would  suffice,  as  demonstration  has  conclusively  proved. 

An    American    rival    attempted    to    swerve    from     the 


60  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

standard  in  another  direction,  using  a  film  2|  inches  wide 
— double  the  width  of  the  kinetoscope  film.  He  eventually 
abandoned  the  wide  band,  partly  on  economic  grounds, 
as  a  ribbon  half  the  width  produced  pictures  in  every 
respect  equal  to  those  obtained  from  the  wider  film.  On 
one  or  two  occasions  the  gauge  has  been  revised  slightly, 
but  the  variations  merely  affected  the  dimensions  of  the 
hole  to  a  microscopic  degree.  Fundamentally,  the  gauge 
as  set  by  Edison  for  the  first  commercial  apparatus  for 
showing  photographs  in  motion  prevails  to-day,  and  is 
universally  accepted. 

The  film  is  received  from  the  manufacturers  in  a  plain 
ribbon,  and  the  perforation  has  to  be  done  shortly  before 
the  film  is  taken  in  hand  for  exposure.  The  film  manu- 
facturers cannot  possibly  supply  it  perforated,  because  the 
celluloid  base  undergoes  continuous  physical  change  while 
in  storage.  Under  varying  climatic  conditions  it  shrinks 
and  expands  to  an  extent  which  may  not  be  observable  to 
the  eye,  but  becomes  pronounced  when  the  picture  is  pro- 
jected upon  the  screen. 

The  necessity  for  mathematical  precision  in  the  matter 
of  perforating  is  somewhat  obscure  to  the  uninitiated,  but 
its  effects  may  be  demonstrated  very  easily.  Compare  the 
vibrating  or  oscillating  flickering  picture  of  1896  with  that 
shown  upon  the  screen  to-day,  in  which  the  effect  produced 
comes  very  close  to  that  of  the  camera  obscura.  If  the 
perforation  errs  the  hundredth  part  of  an  inch,  steadiness 
in  the  picture  is  forfeited.  The  films  have  to  be  punctured 
with  the  same  mathematical  accuracy  that  goes  to  the  pro- 
duction of  a  tiny  screw  intended  for  the  most  delicate  piece 
of  mechanism. 

This  is  especially  the  case  in  regard  to  the  perforation 
of  the  negative  film.  If  this  is  not  absolutely  true  to 
gauge,  the  existing  error  will  be  magnified  in  the  passage 
of  the  film  through  the  camera;  and  should  the  latter  be 
ever  so  slightly  at  fault,  the  defect  becomes  intensified  still 
more.  By  the  time  the  picture  reaches  the  projector  the 
infinitesimally  small  defect  in  the  first  instance  becomes 
increased  fourfold  or  even  more.     The  picture  will  jump 


PAULS    ROTARY    PERFORATOR. 
To  punch  the  holes  in  the  margins  of  the  film  before  it  is  exposed. 


III!-".    FIRS!    CINEMATOGRAPH    STUDIO-STAGE. 

Built   by   Robert   Paul,  at   New  Southgate,    London.     Ii   faced    north.      The  camera  and 
operatoi   were  mounted  on  a  platform  which  travelled  upon  rails. 

See  pa%e  104. 


vi        STORY  OF  THE  PERFORATION  GAUGE       61 

and  flutter  in  the  most  distressing  manner,  and  no  matter 
how  dexterous  the  operator  may  be,  and  despite  the  excel- 
lence of  his  projector,  he  cannot  by  any  means  rectify  or 
mitigate  very  appreciably  defects  arising  from  indifferent 
perforation. 

The  contribution  of  imperfect  perforation  to  unsteadi- 
ness in  projection  was  recognised  in  the  earliest  days;  and 
great  technical  skill  was  devoted  to  the  elaboration  of 
machines  to  puncture  the  film  with  scientific  precision. 
Marvellous  appliances  have  been  produced  for  this  pur- 
pose; but  despite  the  infinite  labour  bestowed  upon  their 
production  the  possibility  of  error  is  ever  present.  Still, 
it  has  been  reduced  to  infinitesimal  proportions,  and,  given 
a  careful  operator,  a  film  can  be  perforated  with  the  holes 
varying  not  a  thousandth  part  of  an  inch  from  the  gauge. 

The  very  earliest  type  of  perforating  machine  was  known 
as  the  "Rotary  Perforator,"  Paul  leading  the  way  in  this, 
as  in  several  other  ramifications  of  the  industry.  The 
machine  was  driven  by  a  mechanism  identical  with  that 
utilised  in  the  camera  and  projector;  because  the  film  had 
to  be  advanced  intermittently  beneath  the  punches,  which 
were  provided  with  an  oscillating  movement.  This  type 
of  machine  is  shown  in  the  illustration.  Paul's  first 
appliance  has  always  ranked  as  more  simple,  efficient,  and 
reliable  than  any  other. 

During  recent  years  the  rotary  perforator  has  fallen  from 
favour,  on  the  plea  that  it  soon  becomes  imperfect  in 
working;  but  such  an  accusation  cannot  fairly  be  brought 
against  Paul's  machine,  since  its  designer  used  it  con- 
tinuously for  four  years,  during  which  time  it  punched 
millions  of  holes,  and  to-day  is  as  correct  in  its  work  as 
when  first  used. 

It  is  impossible  within  the  scope  of  this  book  to  describe 
all  the  various  types  of  perforation  apparatus  now  in  vogue, 
more  especially  as  their  interest  lies  mainly  in  highly 
technical  details.  I  will  content  myself  with  describing 
three  machines  which  exemplify  the  three  most  important 
methods  of  perforation. 

As  this  operation  has  to  be  carried  out  in  the  dark  room 


62  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

in  the  dim  light  of  a  ruby  lamp,  it  is  imperative  that  the 
machines  should  be  of  the  most  simple  design  and  opera- 
tion, demanding  the  minimum  of  labour  on  the  part  of 
the  operator. 

In  the  Williamson  perforator,  four  holes  on  either  side 
of  the  film  are  punched  at  one  time,  and  two  films  are 
perforated  simultaneously,  the  sensitised  surfaces  being 
face  to  face.  This  arrangement  obviates  the  danger  of 
scratching  or  rubbing  the  sensitised  surface  during  the 
operation.  One  coil  of  plain  film  is  mounted  on  the  spool 
A,  and  another  on  the  lower  spool  B.  The  leads  from 
these  two  spools  are  taken  between  the  rollers  C  on  to  a 
small  platform  or  guide  gate  D,  where  the  two  super- 
imposed films  are  brought  accurately  together  to  pass 
under  the  punches.  These  are  mounted  in  two  rows,  the 
requisite  distance  apart,  in  a  moving  head  piece  E,  which 
descends  at  the  critical  moment,  the  punches  piercing  the 
films  cleanly  and  sharply,  the  pieces  of  detached  celluloid 
falling  into  a  receptacle  on  the  floor  beneath. 

When  the  head  containing  the  punches  rises,  the  two 
hooked  fingers  or  claws  F  engage  a  hole  on  either  side  of 
the  films,  and  pull  them  forward  ready  for  the  punching  of 
the  next  four  pairs  of  holes.  In  addition  to  carrying  four 
pairs  of  punches,  the  head  E  carries  four  pairs  of  project- 
ing pins,  set  to  the  same  gauge,  and  before  the  punch 
descends  these  guide  pins  engage  with  the  four  preceding 
pairs  of  holes,  so  that  the  distance  between  the  sets  of  four 
holes  on  either  side  is  bound  to  be  exactly  the  same  as 
between  any  two  consecutive  holes  made  simultaneously. 
The  result  is  that  the  holes  are  perforated  with  absolute 
mathematical  accuracy. 

As  the  film  emerges  from  the  perforator  proper,  it  is 
passed  between  two  guide  rollers  and  a  toothed  sprocket 
G,  which  meshes  with  the  perforations,  and  thence  the 
lower  film  passes  to  the  re-winding  spool  H,  and  the  upper 
film  to  the  spool  /.  Between  the  perforating  plate  and 
the  respective  rollers  C  and  G,  small  loops  will  be 
observed.  These  are  provided  for  the  purpose  of  obviating 
any  pull  upon  the  film  while  in  the  guide  gate,  and  beneath 


vi        STORY  OF  THE  PERFORATION  GAUGE       63 

the  punches,  which  might  otherwise  destroy  the  alignment 
and  accuracy  of  the  gauge.  These  loops  remain  constant, 
but  they  can  be  altered  at  will  while  the  machine  is  running 
without  disturbing  the  actual  perforation.  The  William- 
son perforator  can  be  run  under  power  at  a  relatively  high 
speed,  the  wheel  K  being  capable  of  400  revolutions  per 
minute  without  impairing  the  accuracy  of  the  work  in  the 
slightest  degree. 

A  different  type  of  machine  is  represented  in  the  "N.-S.  " 
perforator,  Fig.  5.  In  this  instance  the  coil  of  plain  film  A  is 


Fig.  5. — The  N.S.  Film  Perforator. 

set  up  in  a  convenient  position  away  from  the  machine,  but 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  feed  thereto  is  in  an  easy  curve. 
The  film  enters  the  machine  through  two  roller  guides, 
C  and  D,  to  a  channel  F,  and  then  under  the  dies  in  the 
top  plate  L.  The  punctured  pieces  of  film  fall  away  clear 
of  the  instrument  through  the  tube  N,  so  that  there  is  no 
probability  of  such  particles  fouling  the  mechanism  and 
thus  possibly  upsetting  the  accurate  working  of  the 
apparatus.  After  being  perforated  the  film  is  moved 
forward  by  means  of  guide  pins,  and  finally  issues  through 


64  MOVING   PICTURES  ch.vi 

a  guide  B  to  be  re-coiled.  This  apparatus  is  very  con- 
venient for  driving  by  power,  is  simple,  efficient  in  its 
operation,  and  owing  to  the  solidity  of  its  construction 
there  is  little  possibility  of  the  precision  of  the  gauge  being 
upset  by  wear  and  tear,  or  by  other  external  influences. 
The  gauge,  moreover,  can  be  altered,  if  desired,  to  as 
small  a  degree  as  i/iooth  of  an  inch  per  foot.  As  the 
positive  film  shrinks  somewhat  after  development,  it  is  an 
advantage  to  be  able  to  compensate  for  the  contraction 
when  perforating.  When  the  film  is  dry,  although  it  may 
have  shrunk  a  trifle,  it  is  found  that  the  gauge  is  perfectly 
accurate. 

In  the  Urban-Joy  perforator,  only  a  single  pair  of  holes 
is  punched  at  a  time — one  on  either  side  of  the  film.  At 
first  sight  this  method  appears  somewhat  slow,  but  there 
is  the  distinct  advantage  that  the  holes  are  made  with 
incontestable  scientific  precision,  and  after  all  this  is  the 
all-important  factor.  This  machine  is  capable  of  the  very 
finest  adjustment,  it  being  possible  to  vary  the  stroke  of 
the  punch  to  the  millionth  part  of  an  inch.  Its  simplicity 
of  operation  is  another  distinct  point.  All  strain  upon  the 
film  is  avoided  for  the  simple  reason  that  it  is  passed 
through  the  machine  by  the  pendulum  action  of  the 
punches.  When  these  are  disengaged  the  film  is  held  in 
position  by  a  clamp  working  in  opposite  step  to  the  action 
of  the  punches. 

Years  of  labour  have  been  expended  upon  the  evolution 
of  the  perforator.  The  fruit  of  these  efforts,  however,  is 
a  material  improvement  in  the  steadiness  of  the  picture 
upon  the  screen. 


CHAPTER   VII 

THE  MOVING  PICTURE   CAMERA,    ITS   CONSTRUCTION,    AND 
OPERATION 

Although  it  was  as  far  back  as  1894  that  the  first 
commercial  moving  picture  camera  appeared  in  Great 
Britain,  the  years  have  not  produced  many  marked 
departures  from  the  design  as  elaborated  by  Paul.  Time 
has  proved  his  plan  to  be  the  most  reliable  and  efficient. 
But  as  the  art  has  developed  and  many  minds  have  been 
concentrated  upon  the  apparatus,  it  has  undergone  modi- 
fication and  improvement  in  minor  details,  all  tending 
towards  greater  excellence  in  the  ultimate  results. 

Paul's  camera  was  a  small  wooden  cabinet,  measuring 
only  about  six  inches  each  way.  It  contained  merely  the 
requisite  intermittent  mechanism  to  bring  successive  depths 
of  the  film  before  the  lens,  and  the  tube  to  enable  focussing 
to  be  carried  out  easily  from  the  back,  and  in  such  a  way 
that  it  was  impossible  for  the  film  to  become  fogged  when 
the  tube  was  left  open  inadvertently. 

This  instrument  was  a  model  of  simplicity,  compact- 
ness, portability  and  convenience.  The  film  was  carried  in 
separate  dark  boxes  of  a  size  to  hold  160,  350,  or  700  feet, 
according  to  requirements.  These  were  detached  from 
the  camera  itself,  the  box  of  unexposed  film  slipping  into 
a  device  on  top  of  the  camera  in  such  a  way  as  to  ensure 
a  light-tight  joint,  and  locked  into  position  to  prevent 
accidental  detachment.  From  this  box  the  film  was  led 
through  the  camera  mechanism,  past  the  lens  and  into  a 
second  box,  similarly  detachable.  The  apparatus  there- 
fore was  resolved  into  three  main  parts — the  camera,  and 
the  unexposed  and  exposed  film  boxes. 

65  v 


66  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

The  modern  cinematograph  camera  is  completely  self- 
contained;  the  film  boxes  are  incorporated  within  the  case 
that  carries  the  mechanism  for  moving  the  film  forward. 
Further  improvement  is  hard  to  imagine.  Bulk  and 
dimensions  are  reduced  to  the  minimum,  with,  at  the 
same  time,  the  maximum  of  efficiency. 

The  cinematograph  camera,  unlike  most  machinery,  is 
called  upon  to  face  exigencies,  and  to  perform  exceedingly 
hard  work  under  the  most  adverse  conditions.  To-day  it 
may  be  in  the  broiling  sun  on  a  tropical  desert;  a  few 
weeks  hence  it  is  plunged  into  the  extreme  cold  of  the 
Arctic  circle;  a  little  later  it  is  well-nigh  submerged  in  a 
reeking  swamp  or  vapour  bath.  Such  varying  conditions 
subject  the  material  and  workmanship  of  the  instrument 
to  a  supreme  ordeal.  Consequently  the  greatest  care  has 
to  be  exercised  in  the  selection  of  material,  the  fashioning 
of  the  component  parts,  and  their  fitting  together.  Only 
the  best  seasoned  mahogany  can  be  utilised  to  withstand 
the  strains  of  warping,  shrinking,  and  expansion  under 
extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  and  climatic  fluctuations. 

In  the  ordinary  stand  camera  used  for  still-life  work, 
there  is  a  bellows  which  can  be  racked  to  and  fro  to  enable 
the  subject  to  be  focussed  sharply  upon  the  ground  glass 
screen.  The  cinematograph  camera  has  no  bellows,  and 
there  is  no  fixed  screen  for  focussing  purposes.  In  the 
simpler  and  cheaper  cameras,  suited  to  amateur  use,  the 
operator  is  not  troubled  with  focussing  details  at  all,  the 
lens  being  of  a  fixed  focus  as  in  certain  types  of  snap-shot 
hand  cameras ;  but  in  the  more  expensive  instruments, 
designed  for  producing  the  finest  classes  of  work,  focussing 
facilities  are  incorporated. 

In  order  to  grasp  the  operation  of  the  camera,  we  will 
open  the  hinged  door  with  which  it  is  provided  on  one 
side,  and  gain  access  to  its  interior  mechanism.  It  would 
be  invidious  to  select  any  special  type  of  camera,  inasmuch 
as  they  all  work  more  or  less  upon  the  same  principle,  the 
differences  being  only  in  minor  details. 

By  reference  to  the  illustration  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  apparatus  is  in  three  main  parts.     The  rear  half  of 


THE    FILM-MOVING    MECHANISM    OF    A   CINEMATOGRAPH    CAMERA. 


The  spool  of  unexposed  film  i>  carried  in  dark  box   A.     Fiom  this   it  is  led  over  sprockel 

D,  through   the   "gate"  between   the  lens  and    the  focussing  tube  C,  where  it  is  exposed. 

The  film  is  then  jerked  down  the  depth  of  a  picture  through  the  gate  by  claws  F,  over 

prockel   and   into  exposed  film  bo*    B    where  ii   is  wi  mnd  on  a  bobbin.     E  is  thi    eyepiei 

it  the  foi  ussing  tulie. 


vii  THE   MOVING   PICTURE   CAMERA  67 

the  cabinet  carries  two  square  compartments,  A  and  B, 
one  above  the  other.  These  are  for  the  two  film  boxes, 
A  carrying  the  unexposed,  and  B  the  exposed  film.  It 
will  be  noticed  that  the  cinematograph  works  upon  the 
system  of  roller  photography.  Indeed,  it  might  be 
described  almost  as  a  semi-automatic  application  of  the 
familiar  snap-shot  camera  using  roll-films. 

The  lens  is  set  centrally  in  the  front  face  of  the  camera, 
and  carries  a  screw,  by  means  of  which  focussing  is 
effected  by  moving  the  lens  itself  to  and  fro  a  short  dis- 
tance within  a  horizontal  tube,  which  corresponds  to  the 
bellows  in  the  ordinary  camera.  In  addition  it  is  fitted 
with  stopping  facilities  working  upon  the  well-known  Iris 
principle,  whereby  the  size  of  the  aperture  may  be  increased 
or  diminished  by  a  rectilinear  movement.  Behind  the 
lens,  and  on  a  line  with  it  in  the  interior,  a  tubular  con- 
nection C  extends  transversely  through  the  width  of  the 
camera  to  the  rear,  and  through  the  outer  wall  to  the 
external  face  of  the  case.  This  is  the  focussing  tube,  into 
which  the  operator  looks  through  the  small  circular  orifice 
E  in  the  back  face  of  the  camera,  knowm  as  the  eye- 
piece. 

The  mechanism  by  which,  with  an  intermittent  motion, 
the  film  is  jerked  forward  three-quarters  of  an  inch 
after  each  exposure,  is  of  the  simplest  design.  The 
film  as  it  issues  through  a  narrow  slit  from  the  unex- 
posed film  box  A,  is  passed  under  a  small  guide 
roller,  having  a  smooth  face.  Thence  it  passes  upwards 
over  a  second  roller  and  down  under  the  sprocket 
wheel,  the  teeth  of  which  engage  with  the  perforations 
in  the  edges  of  the  film,  and  thus  guide  it  forward.  As 
the  film  passes  upwards  from  the  sprocket  wheel,  it  is  kept 
in  mesh  by  another  guide  roller,  which  maintains  an 
easy  pressure  upon  the  film  to  keep  it  in  contact  with 
the  wheel,  this  grip  being  ensured  under  the  tension  of  a 
spring.  The  roller  is  mounted  on  the  end  of  a  small 
lever,  which  can  be  moved  slightly  so  as  to  release  the 
grip  upon  the  sprocket  wheel  in  order  to  insert  the  film. 
The   arrangement   adopted  enables   the   contact   roller   to 

F   2 


68  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

ride  over  any  variations  in  the  thickness  of  the  films  should 
such  exist — a  remote  possibility  in  view  of  the  wonderful 
mathematical  accuracy  with  which  the  films  are  made 
to-day.  It  is  impossible  for  the  film  to  jump  the  sprocket 
wheel,  even  when  the  machine  is  run  at  a  very  high  speed. 
The  contact  roller  is  so  mounted,  however,  that  it  offers 
no  resistance  to  the  free  passage  of  the  film. 

The  film  now  passes  behind  the  lens  for  exposure, 
travelling  through  what  is  known  as  the  "gate,"  which 
consists  of  two  parts,  one  fixed  and  rigid,  the  other  having 
a  slight  swinging  movement.  By  means  of  the  gate  the 
film  is  guided  evenly  into  position,  and  held  rigidly  behind 
the  lens  during  exposure.  The  swinging  part  of  the  gate 
is  clamped  to  the  fixed  section  by  means  of  a  spring  catch, 
so  that  when  the  gate  is  closed  the  film  is  imprisoned 
between  two  sheaths  which  hold  it  firmly,  and  keep  the 
surface  flat  and  even  during  exposure.  The  end  of  the 
focussing  tube  C  presses  against  the  moving  part  of  the 
gate  and  tends  to  hold  it  rigid. 

The  film  is  pulled  through  the  gate  by  an  ingenious 
plan.  There  are  two  claws  or  hooks  F,  the  points  of  which 
engage  with  a  perforation  on  either  side  of  the  film.  These 
two  fingers  are  controlled  by  an  up-and-down  cam  move- 
ment attached  to  the  bottom  sprocket.  As  the  latter 
revolves,  the  hooks  are  lifted  and  carried  upward.  Reach- 
ing the  limit  of  their  upward  travel,  they  drop  upon  the 
film,  clutching  it  by  the  perforations,  and  as  the  claw 
action  has  a  sharp  downward  movement,  the  gripped  film 
is  pulled  down  suddenly  and  smartly  through  the  gate 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  at  a  time.  The  extent  of  the 
downward  travel  reached,  the  claws  are  lifted  so  as  to 
disengage  with  the  film,  are  swung  upwards  once  more, 
and  the  same  cycle  of  operations  is  repeated  until  the  whole 
length  of  film  has  been  exposed. 

After  the  exposure  is  made,  the  film  passes  downwards 
and  through  mechanism  which  is  almost  a  duplicate  of 
that  immediately  above  the  lens.  It  passes  under  the 
rocking  contact  roller,  which  keeps  the  perforations 
meshed  with  the  teeth  on  the  sprocket  wheel,  after  pass- 


vii  THE   MOVING   PICTURE   CAMERA  69 

ing  round  which  it  continues  under  a  guide  roller,  and 
enters  the  lower  film  box  B,  where  it  is  wound  on  a 
bobbin. 

Action  is  imparted  by  the  rotary  movement  produced 
by  the  turning  of  the  handle  through  suitable  mechanism, 
which  is  carried  in  a  small  space  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  camera  to  that  containing  the  film.  The 
handle,  however,  not  only  supplies  the  drive  to  the  inter 
mittent  film  moving  action,  but  also  rotates  the 
shutter  steadily  and  continuously,  through  gearing.  The 
shutter  is  mounted  in  a  small  special  compartment  behind 
the  lens  and  in  front  of  the  film.  It  is  adjustable;  that  is, 
the  opaque  sector  can  be  increased  or  reduced  in  area  so 
as  to  increase  or  diminish  the  size  of  the  opening;  thus  the 
period  of  exposure  can  be  varied  according  to  the  light, 
and  as  a  supplement  to  the  stopping  down  of  the  lens. 
The  gearing  is  practically  the  same  in  all  English  cinema- 
tograph cameras,  namely,  8  to  1,  and  the  turning  speed 
should  be  two  revolutions  per  second,  which  is  practically 
the  slowest  speed  permissible. 

The  preparation  of  the  camera  for  exposure  is  as  follows. 
The  operator  has  selected  his  working  position,  and  the 
camera  has  been  set  up  rigidly  and  firmly  on  its  tripod, 
so  that  no  oscillation  can  occur  during  exposure.  The 
side  of  the  camera  is  opened,  and  the  loaded  film  box,  from 
the  slit  in  the  bottom  of  which  the  end  of  the  film  pro- 
trudes, is  slipped  into  the  upper  compartment. 

Next  the  subject  is  focussed.  The  eye-piece  of  the 
focussing  tube  is  made  telescopic,  as  a  rule,  so  that  it  can 
be  extended  a  slight  distance  from  the  back  face  of  the 
camera  case  to  facilitate  focussing;  it  is  fitted  invariably 
with  a  light,  tight  screw  cap  or  gravity  fall  shutter,  which 
closes  over  the  eye-piece  so  that  no  light  may  enter  through 
the  tube  to  fog  the  film.  For  focussing  purposes  a  piece 
of  transparent  film  with  a  rough  "Matt"  surface  is  used. 
This  is  inserted  in  the  film  gate  to  act  in  the  same  way  as 
the  ground  glass  screen  in  the  ordinary  stand  camera.  The 
object  is  focussed  by  turning  the  screw,  which  racks  the 
lens  forward  or  backward  as  desired.     When  the  picture 


70  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

appears  sharp  and  clearly  defined  the  matt  film  is  removed, 
the  cap  is  replaced  on  the  eye-piece,  and  the  latter  is 
pushed  home  flush  with  the  surface  of  the  wood  casing. 

The  film  is  now  threaded.  It  will  be  observed  that  a 
slight  loop  is  made  at  either  end  of  the  gate.  This  is 
necessary  in  order  to  give  sufficient  play  to  the  film  to 
enable  the  latter  to  be  jerked  down  without  any  strain  with 
each  movement  of  the  hook-claws  behind  the  lens.  If 
it  were  pulled  directly  off  the  top  sprocket  the  film  would 
be  torn.  The  loops  are  kept  constant,  the  upper  being 
connected  to  the  lower  sprocket  through  mechanism  so 
that  they  revolve  simultaneously.  Consequently  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  of  film  is  fed  into  the  top  loop  gate 
at  the  same  time  as  three-quarters  of  an  inch  of  film  is 
jerked  through  the  lower  side  of  the  gate. 

In  loading,  care  must  be  taken  that  the  sensitised  surface 
is  brought  towards  the  lens,  and  that  the  object  is  not 
taken  through  the  thickness  of  the  celluloid  base.  In 
order  to  thread  the  film  through  the  gate  the  focussing 
tube  is  pushed  back  slightly — it  is  made  telescopic  for  the 
purpose — the  spring  catch  of  the  gate  is  released,  and  the 
moving  part  swung  back.  The  film  is  now  slipped  into 
the  gate,  care  being  taken  to  see  that  the  hooks  of  the 
device  whereby  it  is  intermittently  pulled  down  after  each 
exposure  engage  with  the  perforations.  The  gate  is  now 
closed,  and  the  focussing  tube  under  the  action  of  a  spring 
returns  to  its  original  position.  Finally  the  film  is  led 
into  the  unexposed  film  box,  where  it  is  secured  by  a  clip 
to  the  spindle  of  the  reel.  The  box  is  shut,  the  handle  is 
given  a  turn  to  make  sure  that  the  mechanism  runs  evenly 
and  smoothly,  and  then  the  camera  is  closed,  all  being 
ready  for  taking  the  pictures. 

There  is  a  popular  impression  that  the  operation  of  the 
cinematograph  camera  is  as  simple  as  turning  a  coffee- 
mill  or  a  barrel-organ,  and  that  the  cinematographer  has 
nothing  else  to  do  but  to  revolve  the  crank.  Never  was 
there  a  greater  fallacy. 

Turning  the  handle  appears  remarkably  easy  at  first 
sight,  but  a  short  trial  proves  that  appearances  are  decep- 


PAULS   COMPLETE    DEVELOPING,    PRINTING    AND    DRYING    OUTFIT. 


the  kirs"!    developing    room    in    great    britain,  at   rober1 
Paul's  pk  ineer  kilm   manu  kac  k  iry. 

•  See  page  7- 


AFTER     DEVELOPMENT     AM)     WASHING     THE    FILMS    WERE     rRANS- 
l-ERRED    FROM    THE    RACKS   TO   THE   CYLINDERS. 


[Photos  l-y  permission  of  Robert  Paul 
I  III.     DRYING     ROOM,    SHOWING     FILMS     WOUND    ON     THE    DRYING 

IiKI  MS. 

See  page  77. 


vii  THE   MOVING   PICTURE   CAMERA  71 

tive.  It  is  essential  that  the  handle  should  be  rotated  at 
uniform  speed,  and  occasionally  it  is  no  easy  matter  to 
resist  the  desire  to  slow  down.  For  instance,  when  a 
funeral  is  passing,  there  is  an  almost  irresistible  inclina- 
tion to  slacken  speed.  The  amateur  responds  to  this  desire, 
and  is  astonished  at  the  dislocated  character  of  his  pictures 
when  projected  upon  the  screen.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
slowest  funeral  procession  has  to  be  taken  with  the  same 
number  of  revolutions  per  second,  and  the  same  number 
of  exposures — sixteen  pictures  per  second — as  an  express 
train  travelling  at  60  miles  an  hour;  the  crawl  of  the 
tortoise  has  to  be  photographed  just  as  rapidly  as  a  horse 
race,  in  order  to  secure  natural  motion.  If  a  subject  has 
been  photographed  too  slowly  it  cannot  be  corrected  by 
accelerating  the  speed  in  projection.  The  judgment  of 
the  actinic  value  of  the  sunlight,  and  the  requisite  stop  for 
the  lens,  as  well  as  the  adjustment  of  the  shutter,  are  factors 
which  only  can  be  determined  from  experience. 

Possibly  the  box  A  contains  a  roll  of  film  measuring 
300  feet,  whereas  the  subject  photographed  only  demands 
the  exposure  of  60  or  100  feet.  Then  one  makes  a  few 
punch  marks  on  the  film  by  the  manipulation  of  a  small 
brass  knob  projecting  from  the  outside  of  the  camera,  and 
marked  "film  punch."  When  the  film  reaches  the  de- 
veloping room,  the  operators  working  in  the  ruby  light 
can  tell  by  these  marks  the  ends  of  a  series  of  exposures. 

When  the  upper  box  has  been  exhausted  of  film,  the 
lower  box,  now  charged  with  exposed  film,  is  removed, 
the  empty  upper  box  is  slipped  out  of  its  compartment 
and  re-inserted  into  the  lower  recess,  to  serve  in  turn  as 
a  receptacle  for  film  after  exposure,  and  a  fresh  loaded 
film-box  is  placed  in  the  upper  space,  the  mechanism  being 
threaded  as  before.  The  operator  can  ascertain  at  a 
glance  how  much  film  still  remains  to  be  used,  because 
on  the  outside  of  the  case  is  a  dial  which  registers  in  feet 
the  amount  of  film  exposed,  and  which  is  set  to  zero 
whenever  a  fresh  box  of  film  is  inserted. 

The  task  of  the  operator  is  increased  in  difficulty  where 
the   subject   being  taken   is   moving  at  great  speed  hori- 


72  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

zontally  and  vertically  at  the  same  time,  when  the  object 
passes  in  a  very  short  while  beyond  the  field  of  the  lens, 
and  in  order  to  secure  a  good  record  the  operator  must 
follow  the  movements  steadily  and  smoothly  in  such  a  way 
as  to  keep  the  object  near  the  centre  of  the  picture.  The 
development  of  aviation  has  taxed  the  capabilities  of  the 
cinematographer  to  a  supreme  degree;  for  in  photograph- 
ing moving  objects  in  the  air  the  camera  has  to  be  trained 
in  two  directions  at  the  same  time. 

For  this  work  a  special  tripod  is  required.  It  has  a  flat 
table,  but  by  means  of  two  gear  wheels  the  camera  can 
be  swung  round  panoramically,  that  is,  in  a  horizontal 
direction,  while  another  wheel  will  move  it  up  or  down 
through  as  large  a  vertical  arc  as  required.  Rigidity  and 
freedom  from  oscillation  are  essential  to  secure  sharp,  well- 
defined  pictures,  and  consequently  this  moving  table  has 
to  be  of  massive  construction,  while  the  worm  and  wheel 
gearing  has  to  be  heavy  to  ensure  steady  movement.  The 
camera  is  fitted  with  a  direct  view  finder,  whereby  the 
operator  can  train  his  instrument  so  as  to  keep  the  subject 
well  in  the  picture.  Both  horizontal  and  vertical  training 
movements  are  carried  out  by  means  of  hand-wheels. 

One  of  the  finest  examples  of  the  operator's  skill  that 
I  have  ever  seen  was  a  film  of  Wilbur  Wright's  flying 
exploits  in  France,  on  the  occasion  of  his  first  visit  to 
Europe.  The  camera  was  manipulated  by  two  men.  One 
concentrated  his  energies  on  the  revolution  of  the  photo- 
graphing handle,  while  the  other,  with  his  eyes  glued  to 
a  special  direct  view-finder  devised  for  this  particular 
operation,  kept  the  camera  steadily  and  regularly  trained 
both  horizontally  and  vertically  upon  the  aviator  as  he 
described  his  evolutions  in  the  air.  Their  joint  efforts 
were  so  successful  that  they  produced  a  film  free  from  that 
dislocated  or  jerky  action  which  as  a  rule  characterises 
the  lateral  or  vertical  movement  of  the  camera  while 
exposures  are  being  made ;  the  results  were  just  as  if  the 
camera  had  been  kept  stationary  during  the  whole  time. 

The  ordinary  tripod  is  used  generally  for  outdoor  work. 
Many  American  and  Continental  film  producers,  however, 


vii  THE   MOVING   PICTURE   CAMERA  73 

resort  to  a  special  type  of  support  for  the  camera  in  the 
studio  or  for  indoor  operations,  such  as  the  filming  of 
plays.  This  is  a  solid  metal  pillar,  recalling  a  machine- 
gun  mounting,  fitted  with  wheels  to  facilitate  movement 
from  point  to  point,  and  other  adjusting  devices.  It  is 
an  excellent  support  for  indoor  work,  as  it  ensures  a  solid 
foundation  for  the  camera,  free  from  vibration.  In  many 
instances  the  camera  is  driven  by  an  electric  motor. 

It  is  sometimes  desirable  to  secure  two  negative  records 
of  an  important  event  or  subject,  so  that,  should  one  film 
prove  defective,  the  mechanism  break  down,  or  the  film  be 
damaged  or  destroyed,  the  duplicate  is  available  and  pre- 
vents a  total  loss.  For  this  purpose  the  camera  is  in 
duplicate,  though  contained  within  a  single  case,  with  two 
lenses  mounted  side  by  side  as  in  a  stereoscopic  camera. 
Both  sets  of  mechanism  are  operated  by  the  single  handle, 
and  one  person  suffices  for  the  operation  of  the  instrument. 

Within  a  few  years,  cinematography  has  widened  its 
sphere  of  usefulness  in  a  novel  and  unexpected  way. 
Forty  years  ago  no  expedition  of  importance  set  out  with- 
out some  member  who  possessed  artistic  ability,  that 
pictorial  records  of  the  life  and  character  of  the  new  country 
might  be  brought  back  to  civilisation.  As  photography 
developed,  the  artist  of  palette  and  brush  was  superseded 
by  a  man  armed  with  a  camera.  To-day  the  latter  gives 
way  in  his  turn  to  the  cinematographer,  who  brings  back 
to  us  marvellous  animated  pictures  of  the  remote  and 
unknown  corners  of  the  globe. 

An  ingenious  camera  has  been  devised  for  this  especial 
field  of  enterprise.  It  contains  a  unique  feature  that  had 
not  been  previously  applied  to  the  art.  Two  investigators, 
Newman  and  Sinclair,  by  dint  of  considerable  experiment 
and  labour,  have  succeeded  in  producing  a  moving-picture 
camera  with  a  reflex  attachment,  and  this  without  increas- 
ing the  size  of  the  case,  or  interfering  with  the  action  of 
the  short-focus  lenses.  By  means  of  this  apparatus 
focussing  can  be  accomplished  in  fifteen  seconds,  without 
disturbing  the  film  in  the  gate,  which  is  threaded  up, 
ready  for  use,  before  the  camera  is  taken  from  the  dark 


74 


MOVING   PICTURES 


CHAP. 


room.  In  this  way  the  camera  can  be  operated  in  much 
less  time  than  is  possible  by  means  of  the  ordinary  cine- 
matographic apparatus. 

As  may  be  seen  from  the  diagram,  Fig.  6,  the  internal 
mechanism  of  this  handy  little  camera  differs  radically 
from  the  description  given  in  the  first  part  of  the  present 
chapter.  The  two  film  boxes  are  placed  side  by  side 
instead  of  one  above  the  other.  The  film  goes  into  and 
out  of  them  through  narrow  mouths,  which,  when  the 
camera  is  closed  and  light-tight,  are  automatically  in- 
creased in  size  to  facilitate  the  passage  of  the  film,  and 
automatically  decreased  again  when  the  camera  is  re- 
opened.    In  order  to  see,  arrange,  and  focus  the  picture, 


Fig.  6. — The  Newman-Sinclair  Reflex  Moving  Picture 
Camera. 


it  is  only  necessary  to  raise  a  knob  on  the  top  of  the 
camera,  which  renders  the  image  visible  by  means  of  a 
magnifying  eye-piece  without  disturbing  the  film.  The 
shutter  is  also  adjusted  from  the  outside  of  the  camera,  and 
can  be  closed  to  give  an  exposure  of  i/iooth  of  a  second. 
This  camera  is  one  of  the  most  compact,  portable,  and 
lightest  cinematograph  instruments  yet  evolved  for  the 
purposes  of  hard  work.  It  is  designed  to  carry  either 
400  or  500  feet  of  film,  and,  when  a  picture  is  finished,  the 
end  of  the  subject  on  the  film  is  indicated  by  a  device 
which  cuts  a  tongue-shaped  opening  in  the  film,  and 
which  can  be  readily  detected  by  touch  when  the  film  is 
uncoiled  in  the  dark  room.     It  is  an  ideal  instrument  for 


vii  THE   MOVING   PICTURE   CAMERA  75 

travellers,  explorers,  scientists,  and  others  to  whom  quick 
work  is  imperative.  Its  many  excellent  qualities  received 
recognition  from  Captain  R.  Scott,  R.N.,  who  included  it 
in  the  scientific  equipment  for  the  latest  British  Antarctic 
expedition. 

For  special  work,  the  usual  form  of  camera  is  altered  in 
certain  details,  or  equipped  with  special  devices.  Such 
modification  is  emphasised  particularly  for  the  purpose  of 
taking  trick  pictures,  to  which  subject  reference  is  made 
in  subsequent  chapters. 


CHAPTER    VIII 

DEVELOPING   AND   PRINTING   THE  PICTURES 

The  history  of  the  cinematograph  impresses  upon  us  at 
every  turn  the  necessity  which  experimenters  were  under 
of  devising  special  facilities  and  improved  apparatus  in 
all  of  the  numerous  fields  that  impinged  upon  their  work. 
They  were  obliged  to  break  ground  in  every  direction. 
For  instance,  besides  securing  the  right  kind  of  film,  they 
had  also  to  find  the  best  means  of  developing  it.  A  thin, 
narrow  ribbon  of  pictures  40  feet  in  length  is  a  vastly 
different  thing  to  handle  from  a  rigid  glass  plate.  Its  flexi- 
bility presented  many  perplexing  obstacles  which  had  to  be 
overcome.  Those  who  used  the  old  roll  film  with  the  snap- 
shot hand-camera  of  the  early  days,  can  relate  pathetic  and 
humorous  stories  of  the  trials  and  tribulations  they  suffered 
in  passing  the  awkward  length  of  film  through  the  de- 
veloping and  other  baths.  When  it  was  unwound  from 
the  roller  preparatory  to  immersion  in  the  developing  solu- 
tion, it  persisted  in  buckling  and  twisting  into  strange 
contortions.  Development  was  carried  out  in  an  uneven 
or  patchwork  manner,  some  parts  of  the  film  being  fully 
developed  before  others  had  betrayed  the  slightest  sign  of 
yielding  the  latent  image. 

The  plight  of  the  animated  photographer  was  even  more 
unenviable;  the  handling  of  sensitised  celluloid  about  as 
thick  as  a  substantial  wooden  shaving,  was  infinitely  more 
exasperating  than  that  used  in  the  ordinary  hand  camera, 
for  the  latter  was  wider,  thicker,  and  far  shorter. 

The  developing  methods  at  first  advocated  were  of  the 
crudest  nature  possible.     Messrs.  Lumiere  tried  to  assist 

76 


ch.  viii  DEVELOPING  AND  PRINTING  PICTURES    77 

the  tyro  by  comprehensive  explanation  of  a  very  simple 
way  to  carry  out  the  task.  They  suggested  suspending 
the  coil  of  exposed  film  upon  a  rod  slipped  through  the 
centre  of  the  bobbin  to  form  a  kind  of  spindle,  upon  which 
the  coiled  film  was  free  to  revolve  over  the  bath.  The 
operator  was  then  told  to  unwind  the  coil  very  rapidly  by 
hand,  passing  it  into  the  bath  between  the  fingers,  which 
acted  as  a  guide. 

It  appeared  an  absurdly  simple  operation,  but  without 
considerable  practice  it  defied  success.  One  had  to  be 
extremely  careful  not  to  damage  the  delicate  sensitised 
emulsion   of  the  film   while  uncoiling   it;   that   no  greasy 


By  courtesy  of  Messrs.  Butcher  &  Sons,  Ltd. 

Fig.  7. — How  the  Film  is  Wound* upon  the 
Wooden  Frame  for  Developing. 


matter,  such  as  perspiration  from  the  fingers,  might  come 
into  contact  with  the  gelatine  surface;  and  no  bubbles  must 
be  produced  while  feeding  the  slippery  strip  into  the  bath. 
Mr.  Robert  Paul  experienced  these  troubles,  and  displayed 
considerable  ingenuity  in  the  evolution  of  special  means 
to  avoid  them.  The  efficiency  of  his  method  is  proven  by 
the  fact  that  in  the  main  it  is  practised  to  this  day. 

His  solution  of  the  problem  was  simple,  safe,  and  satis- 
factory from  every  point  of  view.  He  took  a  light,  square 
wooden  frame,  similar  to  that  in  Fig.  7,  which  rested 
loosely  upon  two  uprights  in  such  a  way  that  it  could 
revolve.  The  free  end  of  the  film  was  fixed  to  one  side  of 
the  frame,  and  the  film  was  then  passed  from  one  side  to 


78  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

the  other,  as  if  being  wound  upon  a  wheel,  as  it  was 
uncoiled  from  the  spool,  the  inner  end  of  the  film  being 
likewise  secured  to  the  frame.  This  rack  was  dipped 
first  into  a  vertical  tank  to  soak  the  film,  and  then  was 
placed  in  a  flat  tank  or  trough  to  be  developed  in  the  same 
way  as  an  ordinary  glass  plate.  By  this  means  every  part 
of  the  exposed  surface  was  developed  equally.  Develop- 
ment carried  to  the  requisite  degree,  the  frame  was  with- 
drawn, washed,  and  finally  immersed  in  the  fixing  tank, 
which  was  of  the  same  horizontal  design.  When  the 
image  was  fixed  it  was  placed  in  another  tank  and  received 
a  thorough  washing,  to  remove  all  traces  of  the  fixing 
solution,  as  in  the  ordinary  developing  process.  This  task 
completed,  the  film  was  uncoiled  from  the  flat  rack  to  be 
re-coiled  upon  a  wooden  drum,  which  was  suspended  from 
the  ceiling  in  the  drying  chamber,  until  the  film  was  dry 
and  hard. 

As  may  be  supposed,  different  factories  practise  different 
methods  of  carrying  out  this  operation.  Nowadays  a  film 
may  be  as  much  as  300  or  400  feet  in  length,  and  conse- 
quently special  methods  have  to  be  employed.  I  have  been 
in  some  establishments  where  development  is  carried  out 
upon  an  extensive  scale,  in  which  the  films,  as  withdrawn 
from  the  camera  film  box,  are  wound  at  once  upon  a  large 
wooden  reel,  seven  feet  or  so  in  length,  suspended  upon 
brackets  above  the  developing  bath.  When  the  drum  has 
received  its  full  length  of  film  it  is  lowered  into  a  deep 
tank  containing  the  desired  solution,  and  there  kept  re- 
volving slowly  and  steadily  until  the  treatment  has  been 
completed.  Then  the  reel  is  withdrawn  by  two  men  and 
lowered  into  the  next  bath ;  and  so  on  until  at  last  the  reel 
finds  its  way  into  the  drying  room,  where  the  film  is 
uncoiled  from  the  developing  drum  and  re-wound  upon 
the  drying  reel.  The  disadvantage  of  this  process  is  that 
two  men  are  required  to  handle  the  reel,  whereas,  when  a 
frame  is  used,  one  pair  of  hands  is  sufficient. 

The  developing  and  printing  rooms  in  a  large  film- 
picture  factory  are  highly  interesting  hives  of  activity. 
Large  troughs  and  tanks  containing  the  various  solutions 


-J        c 


O     "3 


vni     DEVELOPING  AND   PRINTING  PICTURES      79 

are  on  every  hand,  together  with  adequate  supplies  of 
running  water.  Everything,  of  course,  is  carried  out  in 
semi-darkness,  the  only  light  available  being  that  emitted 
from  ruby  lamps.  The  fixing  solution  after  it  has  served 
its  purpose  is  not  thrown  away,  but  is  subjected  to  a 
chemical  treatment  to  recover  the  bromide  of  silver  which 
the  hyposulphite  of  soda  has  dissolved  from  the  sensitised 
emulsion  on  the  film.  The  silver  in  suspension  is  pre- 
cipitated by  chemical  action  in  a  thick  sediment.  In  large 
works  this  recovery  process  is  profitable,  several  pounds 
of  this  metallic  silver  being  secured  every  week. 

The  solution  employed  for  development  is  either  a  com- 
bination of  hydroquinone  and  metol,  or  a  bath  of  rodinal, 
developing  agents  which  are  familiar  to  the  amateur 
photographer,  while  the  fixing  bath  is  a  solution  of  hypo- 
sulphite of  soda.  The  developing  formula  is  modified  by 
various  firms  as  a  result  of  individual  investigation.  The 
drying  operation  is  one  that  has  to  be  carried  out  very 
carefully ;  the  temperature  of  the  chamber  must  be  evenly 
maintained,  and  the  air  which  is  circulated  through  the 
room  must  be  filtered  before  admission,  in  order  to  arrest 
all  particles  of  dust  which  otherwise  might  settle  upon  the 
gelatine  surface  and  wreak  appreciable  damage. 

In  the  early  days  the  fickle  character  of  the  film  was  a 
serious  difficulty.  If  it  were  dried  too  rapidly  it  evinced 
a  tendency  to  curl,  and  severe  shrinkage  often  ensued.  To 
guard  against  this  trouble  the  film  was  glycerined  before 
being  dried,  by  being  passed  through  a  bath  containing 
a  solution  of  glycerine  and  alcohol.  The  improvements 
effected  in  the  manufacture  of  the  film,  however,  have 
enabled  this  subsidiary  treatment  to  be  dispensed  with.  In 
cases  where  a  topical  film  must  be  rushed  out  quickly  to 
catch  the  public  in  the  height  of  its  interest,  however, 
drying  is  accelerated  by  subjecting  the  film  to  a  bath  of 
alcohol  in  some  form  or  other. 

Although  a  spool  of  film,  measuring  perhaps  300  feet 
in  length,  is  handed  over  for  development,  possibly  that 
300  feet  carries  two,  four,  or  more  exposures,  i.e.,  different 
sections  were  exposed  at  different  times,  on  different  days, 


8o  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

or  under  different  conditions  of  light,  &c.  The  camera 
operator  has  indicated  the  end  of  each  exposure  by  means 
of  the  camera  punch.  When  the  developing  operator 
receives  the  spool,  he  first  searches  for  such  marks  as  he 
uncoils  the  film,  and  the  latter  is  severed  at  those  points, 
and  each  exposure  is  developed  separately.  When  the 
developing  process  is  completed,  therefore,  the  film  relating 
to  one  subject  is  in  a  fragmentary  condition.  These  odds 
and  ends  have  to  be  sorted  out,  all  useless  parts  cut  away, 
and  then  arranged  in  sequence  and  joined  together  to 
form  a  continuous  band  containing,  in  the  ordinary  case, 
the  whole  subject.  If  the  series  of  pictures  runs  into  two 
or  three  thousand  feet,  the  aggregate  will  be  divided  into 
1,000  feet  sections,  which  is  the  approximate  capacity  of 
the  spool  mounted  on  the  projector.  The  sections  are 
united  by  means  of  a  transparent  cement,  known  as  amyl- 
acetate. 

When  the  negative  is  dry  and  the  gelatine  surface  has 
hardened  enough  to  permit  the  sections  to  be  handled  and 
joined  together,  the  next  stage  is  taken  in  hand.  This  is 
printing  the  positive.  Obviously  a  printing  frame,  such 
as  the  amateur  uses  for  printing  from  a  single  glass  plate, 
is  quite  out  of  the  question  with  a  negative  several  hundred 
feet  in  length.  Invention  born  of  necessity  has  met  this 
question  in  a  novel  manner,  and  the  printing  process  is 
one  of  the  most  interesting  phases  in  the  preparation  of  a 
picture.  Considerable  mechanical  ingenuity  has  been  dis- 
played, and  various  types  of  printing  machines  produced; 
but  for  the  purposes  of  explaining  the  subject  most  lucidly 
and  comprehensively  two  typical  machines  will  suffice. 
Before  printing,  however,  the  raw  film  or  stock  intended 
for  the  purposes  of  the  positive  or  transparency  must  be 
perforated,  an  operation  which  is  similar  to  that  followed 
in  perforating  the  negative  film. 

Printing  is  carried  out  by  contact ;  that  is  to  say,  the 
sensitised  surface  of  the  positive  film  is  pressed  tightly 
against  the  emulsion  side  of  the  negative  film  at  the  instant 
the  exposure  is  made.  One  image  is  printed  at  one  time. 
The  two  films  are  given  an  intermittent  action,  the  con- 


viii     DEVELOPING  AND  PRINTING  PICTURES      81 

secutive  images  on  the  negative  film  and  the  corresponding 
sections  of  sensitised  surfaces  on  the  positive  film  being 
brought  before  the  illuminant  during  the  brief  period  that 
the  light  is  cut  off  from  the  printing  box  by  the  passage 
of  the  shutter. 

In  the  Newman-Sinclair  apparatus,  Fig.  8,  the  negative- 
film  is  wound  upon  spool  i,  while  the  positive  film  is 
carried  on  spool  2,  both  being  supported  upon  the  pro- 
jecting bracket  3.  The  negative  passes  over  the  guide  roller 


Fig.  8— Front  and  Sidr  Views  of  Newman-Sinclair 
Printing  Apparatus. 

A,  and  descends  with  the  positive  film  to  the  toothed 
sprocket  4.  At  this  point  the  two  films  are  brought  together 
with  the  gelatine  surfaces  inside,  while  the  teeth  of  the 
sprocket  mesh  with  the  perforations  in  each.  The  two  films 
pass  from  this  sprocket,  form  a  loop,  and  together  enter  the 
gate,  which  clamps  them  tightly  and  flatly  together,  with 
their  respective  perforations   exactly   coinciding. 

At  the  point  where  the  two  films  come  opposite  the 
aperture  through  which  passes  the  light  from  the  lamp, 
there  is  a  mask,  by  which  the  position  of  the  picture  relative 


82  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

to  the  exposure  hole  is  corrected.  The  mask  also  determines 
the  shape  of  the  positive  picture.  It  may  be  rectangular, 
oval,  circular,  or  have  rounded  corners  as  desired.  Imme- 
diately behind  the  film,  in  line  with  the  exposing  aperture, 
is  a  red  screen,  over  which  a  shutter  slides.  When  this 
shutter  is  opened,  the  operator  can  see  the  negative  image 
through  the  positive  film,  and  thus  can  ascertain  that  the 
position  of  the  picture  is  correct  in  relation  to  the  exposure 
aperture,  and  also  that  the  perforations  on  the  two  films 
are  in  synchrony.  The  light  by  which  the  exposure  is 
made  is  contained  in  a  light-tight  box,  or  may  be  placed  on 
the  outside  of  the  wall  of  the  printing  room,  an  aperture 
being  cut  in  the  partition  to  admit  the  light  to  the  printing 
apparatus,  which  is  screwed  to  the  wall.  Between  the  light 
and  the  film  there  is  a  revolving  shutter,  as  in  the  camera, 
which  cuts  off  the  light  intermittently,  enabling  the  suc- 
ceeding negative  image  and  area  of  positive  film  to  be 
brought  into  position  before  the  exposure  orifice. 

The  film  is  drawn  through  the  machine  by  a  pair  of 
fingers  or  claws  which  engage  with  the  perforations  of  the 
two  films  and  pull  them  downwards  together.  As  the 
pictures  are  printed,  the  negative  and  positive  films  pass 
into  boxes  or  other  suitable  receptacles  to  be  re-wound  on 
their  respective  spools.  The  machine  can  be  operated 
either  by  hand  or  power  according  to  the  requirements  of 
the  establishment.  As  the  sensitised  surface  of  the  positive 
film  is  slower  than  that  of  the  negative,  printing  is  carried 
out  at  a  reduced  speed,  the  average  recommended  with 
this  apparatus  being  about  five  pictures  per  second. 

Another  printing  machine  has  been  recently  produced 
which  is  regarded  as  the  simplest,  most  mechanically 
perfect,  most  compact,  and  self-contained  apparatus  yet 
devised  for  this  work,  and  which  compels  attention  as 
much  from  its  efficiency  as  from  the  point  of  view  of 
mechanical  excellence.  This  is  the  Williamson  printer. 
It  is  a  complete  unit,  and  can  be  moved  from  place  to 
place  with  facility. 

It  comprises  a  large  rectangular  box  or  cabinet,  standing 
on  one  end.    The  front  face  carries  the  printing  mechanism, 


M  — 


MM.   WILLIAMSON    PRINTING    MACHINE. 

For  making  the  positive  films.  —  For  explanation  see  page  82. 


vni     DEVELOPING  AND  PRINTING  PICTURES      83 

while  the  interior,  divided  into  two  compartments,  contains 
the  driving  mechanism  and  the  illuminating  agency  for 
printing.  The  apparatus  is  so  designed  that  after  printing 
the  films  are  wound  upon  separate  spools  at  once,  thus 
saving  time,  and  dispensing  with  the  necessity  of  a  box 
or  basket  to  gather  the  loose  films,  which  is  both  a 
dangerous  and  an  unsatisfactory  process,  inasmuch  as  the 
films  are  liable  to  become  damaged  by  curling  and  cracking, 
and  through  the  surfaces  rubbing  against  one  another. 

The  negative  film  is  placed  upon  the  spool  A  imme- 
diately below  which  is  the  positive  film  spool  B.  The 
sensitised  surfaces  of  the  two  films  face  one  another,  and 
the  two  are  brought  together  as  they  pass  under  the  grip 
rollers  and  over  the  toothed  sprocket  C,  where  the  teeth 
mesh  with  the  perforations  in  the  respective  films. 
Issuing  from  this  sprocket  a  loop  is  formed,  and  then  the 
films  enter  the  gate  D  over  the  printing  aperture.  This 
gate  is  side-hinged,  and  when  closed  it  presses  evenly 
upon  the  whole  surface  of  the  films  under  exposure, 
ensuring  a  perfect  even  contact.  There  is  a  small  red 
screen  E,  which,  when  released  by  means  of  a  small  lever, 
drops  down,  thus  enabling  the  negative  to  be  examined 
without  danger  of  the  positive  film  being  fogged  in  the 
operation.  By  this  means  the  printer  can  satisfy  himself 
that  the  picture  is  central  to  the  exposure  hole. 

As  the  picture  is  printed,  a  simple  claw  device  F,  resem- 
bling two  hooked  fingers,  engages  with  the  perforations 
in  the  two  films  and  draws  them  downwards.  This  claw 
device  is  of  very  simple  construction,  working  on  a  cam, 
so  that  when  the  film  has  moved  downwards  the  proper 
distance — sufficient  to  bring  the  succeeding  picture  and  its 
area  of  unexposed  positive  film  before  the  printing  aperture 
— the  fingers  disengage  themselves  from  the  films,  rise, 
and  move  upwards  to  drop  into  other  perforations  and 
repeat  the  operation. 

As  the  film  descends,  it  forms  a  loop,  and  passes  under 
a  double  smooth-faced  roller  and  a  toothed  sprocket  G,  at 
which  point  the  two  films  part  company,  the  positive  to  be 
wound   upon  the  bobbin   H,  while   the   negative   film    is 

g  2 


84  MOVING  PICTURES  chap. 

wound  upon  the  lower  bobbin  7.  These  lower  spools  are 
driven  by  belt  and  pulleys  from  a  bevel  gear  wheel,  which 
carries  a  spindle  actuating  the  claw  giving  the  intermittent 
movement  to  the  films,  and  which  by  means  of  another 
spindle  rotates  the  upper  and  lower  sprockets  C  and  G  so 
that  the  loops  above  and  below  the  gate  remain  constant. 
By  this  arrangement  no  pull  or  strain  is  imposed  upon 
the  films  by  the  sprockets,  which  act  merely  as  guides 
and  not  tractive  devices. 

The  compartment  /  is  lined  with  asbestos,  and  contains 
the  illuminant  by  means  of  which  the  printing  is  done. 
A.n  electric  lamp  of  50  candle-power,  having  a  filament  in 
the  form  of  a  grid,  is  placed  directly  opposite  the  window 
through  which  the  exposures  are  made.  This  lamp  is 
mounted  upon  a  slide  controlled  by  a  lever  on  a  quadrant 
on  the  face  of  the  machine,  by  means  of  which  it  may  be 
moved  as  required  from  2  inches  to  10  inches  from  the 
printing  window.  The  power  of  the  light  may  be  varied 
according  to  the  density  of  the  negative  by  means  of  a 
controller,  which  increases  or  decreases  its  intensity  in 
much  the  same  way  as  a  gas  jet  can  be  turned  up  or  down, 
it  being  possible  to  secure  six  variations  in  light  intensity 
ranging  between  16  and  50  candle-power.  When  the  door 
of  the  chamber  is  closed  the  compartment  is  perfectly  light- 
tight,  though  ample  ventilation  is  secured. 

The  lower  compartment  K  carries  the  electric  motor  by 
means  of  which  the  apparatus  is  driven,  and  the  speed  of 
printing  is  altered  at  will  by  means  of  a  controller.  The 
motor  is  of  1/12  horse-power,  and  six  direct  speeds  can 
be  obtained.  The  drive  is  communicated  to  the  mechanism 
through  a  system  of  cone  pulleys,  which  enable  three  speeds 
to  be  obtained;  and  as  each  of  these  three  speeds  can  be 
given  one  of  the  six  speeds  of  the  motor  by  means  of  the 
regulating  switch  or  controller,  the  apparatus  can  be  driven 
at  eighteen  different  speeds,  according  to  requirements. 
Wide  range  of  action,  combined  with  simplicity  of  control, 
characterise  this  apparatus.  The  printing  speed  varies 
according  to  the  density  of  negative  and  the  intensity  of 
the    light,    but    the    average    speed    in    printing    from    a 


vin     DEVELOPING  AND  PRINTING  PICTURES      85 

normal  negative  is  about  500  exposures  of  pictures  per 
minute. 

The  positive  film,  after  being  exposed,  is  developed  by 
a  method  similar  to  that  used  for  the  negative.  Both 
these  developing  processes  demand  considerable  skill  and 
experience  in  order  to  ensure  the  best  possible  results.  An 
accomplished  developer,  like  his  colleague  working  with 
glass  plates,  can  rectify  many  deficiencies  arising  during 
exposure.  The  camera  operator  often  has  to  work  under 
the  most  adverse  conditions  concerning  light,  and  it  is 
the  task  of  the  man  in  the  dark  room  to  obtain  the  utmost 
from  a  poor  negative.  By  care  and  attention,  combined 
with  experience  and  knowledge,  he  will  be  able  to  improve, 
make  up  for  under-exposure,  and  mitigate  the  evils  due 
to  over-exposure.  It  will  be  realised  that  development  is 
the  most  critical  stage  in  the  whole  operation,  for  upon 
the  manner  in  which  it  is  carried  out  much  of  the  excel- 
lence and  merit  of  the  projected  picture  depends. 

The  fact  that  the  cinematograph  camera  is  being 
regarded  more  and  more  as  an  indispensable  unit  in  the 
impedimenta  for  travelling  and  exploring  expeditions  has 
resulted  in  attention  being  devoted  to  the  perfection  of  a 
small  portable  developing  outfit  to  enable  films  to  be 
developed  at  once,  instead  of  sending  them  home  for  treat- 
ment, as  hitherto  has  been  the  case.  The  "N.S."  develop- 
ing apparatus  is  an  excellent  appliance  of  this  character. 
It  has  been  taken  by  Captain  Scott,  R.N.,  upon  his 
Antarctic  expedition,  and  forms  part  of  the  photographic 
outfit  carried  by  Mr.  Cherry  Kearton  upon  his  travels. 
The  developing  apparatus  consists  of  a  rotating  cylinder 
and  two  or  more  semi-circular  troughs.  The  film  is  wound 
spirally  upon  the  drum,  being  held  in  position  by  means 
of  wire  staples,  and  the  apparatus  is  so  designed  that  the 
drum  with  its  film  can  be  moved  from  one  trough  to  the 
other  by  the  simple  movement  of  a  lever.  The  design  of 
the  apparatus  ensures  economy  in  the  quantity  of  developer 
required.  Three  pints  of  solution  are  sufficient  to  treat 
75  feet  of  film,  and  the  bath  can  be  thrown  away  when 
work  is  finished  or  bottled  for  further  use. 


86  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

After  washing,  the  film  is  wound  upon  a  collapsible 
drum,  which  folds  into  a  small  space  when  not  in  use. 
The  outfit  is  made  of  pine,  with  waterproofed  joints,  the 
whole  of  the  woodwork  being  treated  with  paraffin  wax  to 
render  it  impervious  to  the  action  of  chemicals  and 
moisture.  When  packed,  the  apparatus,  capable  of  dealing 
with  50  feet  of  film,  measures  3  J  feet  in  length,  by  26 
inches  wide,  and  18  inches  deep.  The  outer  packing 
constitutes  the  support  for  the  apparatus  when  in  operation. 

Waste  is  absolutely  unavoidable  in  the  cinematograph 
industry,  and  no  matter  how  carefully  operations  may  be 
conducted,  it  is  bound  to  assume  impressive  proportions. 
In  a  travelling  expedition  the  operator  records  pictures  of 
what  he  deems  to  be  sufficiently  interesting  from  various 
points  of  view — scenic,  ethnographic,  historical,  or  merely 
anecdotal  and  humorous.  When  the  films  are  developed 
and  a  trial  positive  is  struck  for  projection  before  the 
powers  that  be,  to  receive  official  approbation  and  sanction 
to  enter  the  market,  the  critics  in  the  private  projecting 
room  sometimes  fail  to  see  eye  to  eye  with  the  cinemato- 
grapher,  and  deem  this  and  that  to  be  lacking  in  the 
essentials  which  render  a  film  attractive  to  the  public. 
Accordingly,  these  sections  are  eliminated.  From  300  to 
3,000  feet  may  be  destroyed  in  this  manner. 

The  waste  is  still  greater  in  the  filming  of  picture  plays. 
Sometimes  a  scene,  occupying  100  or  150  feet  of  film,  will 
have  to  be  photographed  three  or  four  times.  I  once  saw 
a  scene,  taking  200  feet  of  film,  recorded  six  times  before 
it  gave  satisfaction.  It  was  a  picture  involving  the  move- 
ments of  a  large  crowd,  and  in  five  instances  something 
went  wrong  at  one  point  or  another,  despite  the  fact  that 
rehearsals  had  been  prosecuted  with  such  energy  and 
persistence  that  at  last  everything  appeared  to  move  with 
the  precision  of  the  wheels  of  a  watch.  A  thousand  feet 
of  film  were  spoiled  in  this  particular  case,  which,  at  an 
average  of  i|d.  (three  cents)  a  foot,  represented  a  waste 
of  £6  or  $30  in  film  alone.  Yet  this  is  by  no  means  an 
isolated  instance;  the  proportion  often  approximates  20  per 
cent.;  that  is  to  say,  200  feet  out  of  1,000  feet  are  useless. 


vin     DEVELOPING  AND  PRINTING  PICTURES      87 

The  bigger  the  production  being  recorded,  the  heavier  the 
waste  in  this  direction. 

When  the  positives  have  been  dried  and  hardened  suffi- 
ciently to  enable  them  to  be  handled,  they  are  sent  to  a 
room  where  the  different  sections  are  identified  and  allotted 
to  their  positions  in  the  subjects  to  which  they  belong. 
The  sections  are  joined  together,  the  lengths  of  film  bearing 
the  explanatory  sub-titles  are  inserted  in  the  proper  places, 
and  the  whole  subject,  after  a  final  examination,  is  wound 
upon  a  spool  ready  for  the  market.  The  examination  of 
the  films  is  carried  out  rigorously,  those  suffering  from 
the  slightest  blemish  or  coming  below  the  firm's  standard 
being  discarded. 

It  has  been  seen  from  the  foregoing  that  the  preparations 
for  developing  and  printing  are  somewhat  elaborate,  and 
demand  expensive  apparatus  in  order  to  insure  the  most 
satisfactory  results.  These  considerations  react  against 
the  amateur  cinematographer.  But  should  one  fall  a  victim 
to  the  fascinating  glamour  of  cinematography,  one  need 
not  apprehend  difficulties  in  connection  with  developing 
and  printing.  There  is  no  necessity  to  acquire  perforators, 
to  establish  a  complete  developing  room,  or  to  invest  in  a 
printing  machine.  The  majority  of  cinematograph  manu- 
facturing establishments  undertake  to  develop  negatives, 
and  to  supply  positive  prints  ready  for  projection  at  a 
nominal  figure.  It  is  far  better  to  entrust  the  work  to  a 
skilled  staff,  who  can  be  trusted  to  handle  the  film  success- 
fully, than  to  attempt  to  wrestle  with  unknown  difficulties 
with  a  serpent-like  film  200  feet  long,  in  the  murky  gloom 
of  the  dark  room. 


CHAPTER    IX 

HOW  THE  PICTURES  ARE   SHOWN   UPON  THE  SCREEN. 

Having  obtained  the  positive  film,  with  its  string  of 
consecutive  pictures,  we  now  proceed  to  reproduce  upon  a 
large  scale  the  animation  which  has  been,  so  to  speak, 
harnessed  by  the  camera.  For  this  purpose  three  essentials 
are  necessary — a  projecting  apparatus,  a  powerful  and  bril- 
liant illuminant,  and  a  white  surface  or  screen,  upon  which 
the  pictures  are  thrown. 

In  its  general  appearance  the  projector  resembles  the 
magic  lantern,  which  before  the  advent  of  the  cinemato- 
graph held  the  field  as  a  favourite  source  of  amusement. 
It  has  the  small  box  or  cabinet  in  which  the  light  is  placed, 
and  the  condenser  whereby  the  rays  from  the  illuminant 
are  converged  into  a  powerful  beam  to  be  thrown  through 
the  picture  and  the  lens  upon  the  screen.  This  part  of  the 
apparatus  is  practically  the  same  as  that  required  for  the 
purpose  of  showing  still-life  lantern  slides.  It  is  the 
mechanism  required  to  bring  the  consecutive  pictures  singly 
before  the  lens  in  rapid  succession  that  constitutes  the  real 
difference  between  the  modern  projector  and  the  old 
stereopticon. 

The  projecting  mechanism  has  the  same  task  as  the 
camera  for  securing  the  pictures.  That  is  to  say,  a  small 
section  of  film  corresponding  to  the  dimensions  of  a  picture 
has  to  be  brought  into  position  before  the  lens  in  such  a 
way  as  to  permit  the  powerful  concentrated  beam  of  light 
from  the  lantern  to  pass  through  it  and  throw  an  enlarged, 
brilliant,  and  clearly  defined  picture  upon  the  screen.  The 
image  rests  on  the  screen  for  the  fraction  of  a  second,  to 


ch.  ix  HOW    PICTURES   ARE    SHOWN  89 

be  followed  by  the  next  picture.  One  does  not  observe  the 
change  from  one  picture  to  the  other,  as  there  is  a  revolving 
shutter,  the  opaque  blade  or  blades  of  which  cut  across  the 
screen  at  regular  intervals.  While  the  shutter  is  passing 
the  lens,  thereby  interrupting  the  passage  of  light  to  the 
screen,  the  succeeding  picture  is  brought  into  position  ;  and 
when  the  opaque  blade  has  passed,  it  is  exposed  in  its  turn 
and  makes  way  for  the  next  picture,  this  alternate  action 
continuing  until  the  end  of  the  film  is  reached.  It  will  be 
seen  that  an  intermittent  motion  has  to  be  given  to  the  film 
in  projection,  in  precisely  the  same  manner  as  is  required 
in  the  camera  for  exposure. 

Although  the  evolution  of  a  smooth-working  and  perfect 
camera  taxed  mechanical  ingenuity  to  a  high  degree,  the 
proportions  of  the  task  were  not  to  be  compared  with  those 
involved  in  the  design  of  the  projector.  Many  factors  had 
to  be  taken  into  consideration.  In  the  first  place,  it  was 
imperative  that  each  picture  should  be  superimposed  exactly 
upon  its  predecessor,  that  when  the  image  reached  the  sheet 
it  should  stand  as  steadily  and  as  still  for  the  minute  frac- 
tion of  a  second  as  if  it  were  a  lantern  slide,  and  that  the 
change  from  one  picture  to  the  other  should  be  carried  out 
in  such  a  way  as  to  render  the  change  as  imperceptible  as 
possible  to  the  spectator.  In  short,  every  effort  had  to  be 
made  to  reproduce  by  intermittent  motion  the  effect  obtain- 
able with  the  camera  obscura. 

The  perfection  of  this  illusion  has  demanded  years  of 
unremitting  experiment  and  research.  When  animated 
pictures  first  came  before  the  public  they  had  a  violent 
flickering,  oscillating,  and  jumping  motion,  which  proved 
exceedingly  painful  to  the  eyes.  The  effect  was  somewhat 
similar  to  that  produced  by  gazing  at  a  picture  which  is 
vibrating,  and  blinking  rapidly  meanwhile,  or  when  a 
flicker-disc  is  rotated  very  rapidly  before  the  limelight 
centred  upon  a  stage  scene  and  actors. 

By  dint  of  persistent  effort  and  the  perfection  of  mech- 
anical details,  this  serious  flickering  and  jumping  effect 
has  been  eliminated ;  that  is,  so  far  as  is  possible  with 
an  apparatus  designed  to  convey  the  impression  of  con- 


90 


MOVING   PICTURES 


CHAP. 


tinuous  motion  by  intermittent  action.  The  projecting 
mechanism  is  of  substantial  design,  while  the  moving  parts 
subjected  to  wear  and  tear  are  made  of  the  strongest  metals. 
The  wear  and  tear,  however,  is  tremendous,  and  as  all  the 
moving  parts  are  liable  to  displacement  they  must  be  fitted 
with  adjusting  devices  whereby  all  slackness  can  be  taken 
up  and  the  apparatus  be  kept  tuned  to  a  high  pitch  of 
efficiency.  Great  ingenuity  has  been  displayed  in  the  con- 
ception and  manufacture  of  these  details,  and  the  cinemato- 
graph projector  of  to-day  is  a  wonderful  piece  of 
mechanism. 

The  optical  principle  of  the  cinematograph  is  exactly 
that  of  the  magic  lantern.  Reference  to  Fig.  9 
will     explain    it    fully.      The    illuminant    is    represented 


Fig.  9. 


[By  cotirtesy  of  Messrs.  Butcher  &*  Sons,  Ltd. 

-The  Optical  Principle  of  the  Cinematograph. 


by  L  and  the  centre  of  the  light  is  opposite  the  centre  of 
the  condensers  C  C,  which  receive  the  rays  and  condense 
them,  the  point  of  convergence  being  in  the  lens  or  objec- 
tive O,  from  which  they  pass  out  in  the  form  of  an  expand- 
ing cone  of  light  to  fall  upon  the  screen.  The  rays  in 
passing  from  the  condensers  penetrate  the  picture  F  on  the 
film  in  position  before  the  lens.  It  will  be  seen  that  the 
lens  has  to  be  mounted  so  that  its  longitudinal  axis  is  level 
with  the  light.  The  distance  of  the  light  L  from  the  con- 
densers, and  similarly  the  distance  of  the  lens  or  objective 
O  from  the  picture  F  is  governed  by  the  focus  of  the 
objective. 

It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  the  picture  to  be  projected 
must  be  brought  to  a  stop  in  a  position  central  to  the  lens, 


ix  HOW   PICTURES   ARE   SHOWN  91 

and  for  this  purpose  there  is  a  film  trap  or  gate,  where  it 
makes  a  momentary  halt,  in  precisely  the  same  way  that 
the  unexposed  film  is  arrested  in  its  progress  through  the 
camera. 

The  film  to  be  projected  is  carried  upon  a  spool  mounted 
on  an  arm  or  bracket  above  the  mechanism,  with  the  pic- 
tures upside  down  as  in  the  ordinary  magic  lantern.  The 
spools  used  are  of  the  open  or  the  closed  type.  The  former 
is  permissible  in  countries  where  there  is  no  rigid  legislation 
governing  cinematograph  displays,  or  where  non-inflam- 
mable films  are  used;  but  in  Great  Britain  the  film  must 
be  wound  upon  a  spool  enclosed  in  a  metallic  case,  to 
provide  protection  against  fire.  The  best  spool  boxes  are 
lined  with  asbestos,  which  ensures  a  greater  degree  of  safety. 

From  the  spool  the  film  is  threaded  over  a  toothed 
sprocket,  which  engages  with  the  perforations,  and  also 
under  a  spring  grip  roller  which  keeps  the  film  in 
contact  with  the  sprocket.  A  loop  is  then  formed,  and 
from  this  the  film  passes  into  the  gate  behind  the  lens. 
This  gate  consists,  as  in  the  camera,  of  two  pieces,  one 
rigid,  the  other  swinging  and  hinged  to  the  first,  so  that 
it  may  be  opened  to  enable  the  film  to  be  introduced.  When 
closed,  the  film  is  held  flat  and  rigid.  As  the  shutter  passes 
across  the  field  of  the  lens,  cutting  the  picture  off  the  sheet, 
the  film  is  given  a  sharp  jerk  downwards  to  bring  the  next 
picture  into  exactly  the  same  position  in  the  gate  before 
the  lens  as  that  occupied  by  the  preceding  image.  The 
descending  film  passes  round  a  second  toothed  sprocket, 
with  its  grip  roller,  and  thence  into  the  second  spool  box, 
where  it  is  coiled  upon  the  bobbin.  The  machine  is 
operated  either  by  hand  or  by  power  and  belting  passing 
over  a  pulley. 

I  have  described  the  broad  principle  upon  which  the 
projector  operates;  the  details  of  the  mechanism  vary 
according  to  the  ideas  of  various  makers.  There  are  several 
excellent  projecting  mechanisms  on  the  market,  each  pos- 
sessing departures  in  detail,  to  some  of  which  reference  is 
made  later. 

The  great  difficulty  was  to  impart   intermittent   motion 


92  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

to  the  mechanism  which  feeds  the  film  to  the  lens  at  regular 
intervals  from  a  continuous  rotary  drive,  the  handle  being 
revolved  at  uniform  speed.  It  occurred  to  Paul,  who  was 
the  first  man  in  England  to  attack  the  problem  scientifically, 
that  it  might  be  feasible  to  employ  the  type  of  intermittent 
gear  used  in  watches,  known  as  the  Geneva  stop.  He 
decided  to  adopt  this  mechanism. 

The  driving  wheel  when  it  completes  a  revolution  falls 
into  a  notch  of  the  driven  wheel,  and  in  continuing  its 
rotary  movement  moves  the  latter  forward  the  extent  of  one 
notch,  but  no  more,  owing  to  the  convex  space  between 
each  notch,  or  concave  rim  of  each  tooth,  which  coincides 
with  the  curve  of  the  driving  wheel  and  fits  closely  against 
its  circumference.  When  the  driving  wheel  makes  its 
second  revolution  it  engages  with  the  second  notch,  and 
so  on,  with  the  result  that  in  this  case  the  driving  wheel 
makes  seven  revolutions  to  one  of  the  driven  wheel.  Each 
notch  coincides  with  a  picture;  that  is  to  say,  each  time  the 
driving  wheel  forces  the  second  wheel  forward  one  notch,  a 
picture  on  the  film  is  brought  before  the  lens  for  projection. 

This  novel  gear  gave  the  desired  result,  but  it  underwent 
considerable  modification,  the  number  of  teeth  in  the  driven 
wheel  being  ultimately  reduced  to  four.  The  driving  wheel 
was  also  altered.  Instead  of  being  notched  as  in  the 
Geneva  stop  movement,  it  was  fitted  with  a  pin,  which, 
when  the  wheel  made  a  complete  revolution,  fell  into  one 
of  the  deep  notches  in  the  driven  wheel,  and  so  moved  it 
forward.  By  this  modification  the  gearing  was  reduced  to 
4  to  i ;  the  driving  wheel  made  four  revolutions  to  one 
of  the  driven  wheel,  and  each  notch  of  the  latter  corre- 
sponded to  a  picture.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  notches 
in  this  driven  wheel  resemble  a  Maltese  cross  in  form,  the 
device  became  known  as  the  "Maltese  Cross"  movement. 
It  is  in  use  to-day.  The  notched  Maltese  cross  wheel  is 
attached  to  the  spindle  of  the  sprocket  wheel  below  the 
lens,  and  the  movement  forward  of  one  notch  suffices  to 
jerk  the  film  down  smartly  three-quarters  of  an  inch  or  the 
depth  of  one  picture. 

The  advantage  of  this  movement  is  that  the  film  is  pulled 


ix  HOW   PICTURES   ARE   SHOWN  93 

down  very  quickly,  and  as  a  result  the  flicker  is  reduced  to 
a  negligible  quantity.  The  gear  is  noiseless  and  enables 
a  very  steady  picture  to  be  obtained  upon  the  screen.  On 
the  other  hand,  not  being  a  true  mechanical  movement,  the 
forward  motion  of  the  film  is  accompanied  by  a  certain 
degree  of  shock,  which  not  only  imposes  a  strain  upon 
the  fragile  film,  but  at  the  same  time  sets  up  great  wear 
and  tear  in  the  mechanism  itself. 

For  these  reasons  another  system  of  bringing  the  film 
into  place  was  evolved.  A  wrheel  having  an  eccentric  move- 
ment is  introduced  below  the  film  gate.  This  wheel 
carries  a  projecting  roller,  and  with  each  revolution  the 
roller  strikes  the  film  which  passes  over  the  wheel,  and  pulls 
it  down  the  depth  of  a  picture.  This  type  of  action  is  known 
as  the  "dog"  movement,  and  is  incorporated  in  a  variety 
of  ways  for  the  purpose  of  facilitating  the  smooth  and 
regular  movement  of  the  film  through  the  gate.  Its  disad- 
vantages are  that  it  is  noisy ;  and  secondly,  that  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  secure  a  steady  picture  upon  the  screen,  as 
the  dog  strikes  the  film  so  smartly  as  to  set  up  a  vibration 
which  is  communicated  to  the  picture  in  the  gate.  But  it 
is  simpler  than  the  "Maltese  cross"  movement,  while  the 
wear  and  tear  upon  the  mechanism  itself  is  so  slight  as  to 
be  almost  non-existent. 

These  two  movements  have  divided  the  cinematograph 
world  into  two  camps,  one  adhering  to  the  "Maltese  cross," 
the  other  staunch  in  its  support  of  the  "dog"  movement. 
But  the  former  appears  to  be  increasing  in  favour,  despite 
its  acknowledged  defects.  Some  years  ago  Paul  indicated 
an  improvement  on  it  which  demands  attention  because  it 
converts  an  indifferent  mechanical  movement  into  one 
scientifically  correct.  The  principle  is  shown  in  Fig.  10. 
Instead  of  having  four  notches  or  slots  in  the  driven  wheel, 
as  in  the  Maltese  cross,  he  has  only  three  slots.  The  driving 
member  A  has  an  arm  C  carrying  a  roller  E  at  its  outer 
edge.  The  driving  member  A  when  it  completes  a  revolu- 
tion, enters  the  slot  c  in  the  driven  wheel  B,  and  at  the 
moment  of  entering  the  slot  is  at  a  tangent  to  the  circular 
path  a  of  E,  with  the  result  that  the  roller  E  enters  the  slot 


94 


MOVING   PICTURES 


CHAP. 


without  setting  up  any  shock  whatever,  carries  the  wheel 
B  round,  and  leaves  the  slot  at  a  similar  tangent  to  its 
path,  at  the  same  time  bringing  the  next  slot  tangent  to 
the  path  of  the  roller  E  on  arm  A.  Thus  the  film  is  given 
increasing  speed  without  the  slightest  strain,  and  as  the 
movement  enables  the  images  to  be  changed  rapidly  with- 
out jarring,  it  is  possible  to  reduce  the  period  of  eclipse  to 
almost  nothing.  For  this  reason,  the  opaque  sector  of  the 
shutter  can  be  cut  down  to  one  sixteenth  of  the  area  of  the 


Fig.  io.— Paul's  Improved  "Cross"  Driving  Mechanism. 


circle  described  by  the  shutter.  With  the  other  move- 
ments the  sector  of  the  shutter  must  cover  at  least  one- 
quarter  of  the  superficies.  In  other  words,  the  three-slot 
wheel  cuts  down  the  period  of  eclipse  to  less  than  one-quarter 
of  that  possible  by  any  other  mechanism,  and  as  the  sector 
only  covers  one-sixteenth  of  the  circle,  the  period  of  light 
thrown  through  the  film  on  to  the  screen  is  increased,  with 
an  accompanying  increase  of  brilliancy  and  a  complete 
absence  of  flicker. 

The  shutter  is  one  of  the  most  important  features  of  the 


ix  HOW   PICTURES   ARE   SHOWN  95 

projector.  In  the  majority  of  cases  it  is  placed  before 
the  lens,  but  in  the  Gaumont  "chrono  "  machine  it  is  placed 
between  the  condenser  and  the  picture.  In  order  to  secure 
the  best  results,  the  area  of  the  opaque  surface  covering  the 
lens  while  the  next  picture  is  brought  into  position  should 
be  reduced  to  the  minimum,  and  the  eclipsing  action  should 
be  so  carried  out  as  to  reduce  the  flicker,  which  is  directly 
due  to  the  cutting  off  of  one  picture  to  enable  the  next 
to  be  brought  into  position.  In  the  early  days  the  shutter 
had  one  blade  only ;  when  a  brilliant  light  was  used,  the 
alternate  periods  of  light  and  darkness  could  be  easily 
distinguished,  and  the  eyes  suffered  accordingly.  An  effort 
to  remedy  this  disastrous  effect  was  made  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  a  violet-coloured  sector  of  similar  area  to  the  opaque 
sector,  and  set  opposite  to  the  latter,  which  gave  the  shutter 
the  appearance  of  a  two-bladed  propeller.  This  is  effec- 
tive to  a  certain  degree ;  but  it  has  been  superseded  by  a 
shutter  having  three  blades.  The  shutter  is  mounted  upon 
a  spindle  in  front  of  the  lens,  the  distance  therefrom  being 
determined  by  the  focus  of  the  objective. 

The  heat  concentrated  upon  the  film  by  the  converging 
rays  of  light  from  the  condenser  is  tremendous.  The  effect 
is  identical  with  that  produced  by  focussing  the  sun's  rays 
with  a  lens  upon  a  piece  of  paper.  If  the  rays  are  permitted 
to  play  upon  one  part  of  the  celluloid  film  for  four  or 
five  seconds  it  will  become  ignited.  So  long  as  the  film 
is  moving  little  apprehension  need  be  entertained ;  the 
danger  arises  when  the  film  is  stopped  to  attempt  focussing 
with  a  stationary  picture,  or  the  film  breaks  during  projec- 
tion and  stops  in  the  gate.  Several  disastrous  catastrophes 
have  arisen  from  the  firing  of  the  film  during  projection. 
It  is  impossible  to  lay  too  great  a  stress  upon  the  danger, 
for  the  average  operator  is  little  more  than  a  cog  in  the 
machine,  and  fails  to  concentrate  attention  upon  the  work 
in  hand  so  as  to  anticipate  and  meet  emergencies. 

Manufacturers  have  tried  to  remove  the  danger  by  the 
evolution  of  what  is  known  as  an  automatic  safety  cut-off. 
This  is  a  second  shutter,  which,  when  the  projector  is  at 


96  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

rest,  drops  between  the  light  and  the  lens.  The  shutter 
is  connected  to  the  balls  of  a  governor.  As  the  revolving 
speed  of  the  governor  is  increased  by  the  turning  of  the 
driving  handle,  the  balls  assume  a  horizontal  circle  of 
rotation,  and  in  so  doing,  lift  the  shutter  until  it  rises  clear 
of  the  aperture  in  the  gate,  through  which  the  light  strikes 
the  picture.  In  the  same  way,  as  the  revolving  speed  of 
the  governor  is  decreased,  the  balls  fall  and  the  shutter 
descends. 

The  introduction  of  this  automatic  cut-off  is  somewhat 
to  be  deplored.  It  makes  the  operator  less  careful;  he 
trusts  blindly  to  his  automatic  friend,  which,  though  it  func- 
tions admirably,  is,  like  all  such  mechanisms,  liable  to 
fail  at  a  critical  moment.  When  such  a  breakdown 
does  occur,  the  average  operator  is  invariably  caught 
napping,  and  the  film  is  fired  before  he  realises  what  has 
happened.  The  older  system,  whereby  the  cut-off,  a  shutter 
working  upon  a  hinged  flap  principle,  had  to  be  operated 
manually,  was  far  safer.  Its  opening  or  closing  constituted 
a  part  of  the  cycle  of  operations  in  the  preparations  for 
projection,  thus  calling  for  a  definite  movement  on  the 
part  of  the  operator. 

The  most  efficient  safety  appliance  yet  associated  with  the 
projector  itself  is  the  Urban-Joy-Harris  anti-firing  device, 
Fig.  1 1,  a  very  simple  arrangement,  whereby  the  rising  and 
falling  gate  is  converted,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  into  a 
fire-proof  box.  When  the  film  is  threaded  through  the  gate, 
only  that  part  before  the  lens,  upon  which  the  light  rays 
are  converged,  is  exposed  to  the  air  on  the  side  nearest  the 
light.  On  the  opposite  side  the  exposure  hole  is  contained 
in  a  tube,  holding  the  lens,  which  consequently  forms  an 
air-tight  chamber  upon  that  side.  Should  the  film  catch 
fire  while  stationary  in  the  gate,  the  air  contained  in  the 
lens  chamber  A  becomes  heated  suddenly,  and  expands, 
so  that  the  products  of  combustion  are  discharged  through 
the  exposure  hole  of  H  into  the  air.  The  fire  cannot  creep 
up  and  down  the  film,  as  small  bars  exactly  above  and  below 
the  exposure  hole  successfully  prevent  such  action. 

In  addition  there  is  the  Harris  safety  shutter,  which  in  the 


IX 


HOW   PICTURES   ARE   SHOWN 


97 


event  of  the  film  breaking  below  the  gate,  and  thus  pre- 
venting its  own  passage  owing  to  the  interruption  in  the 
driving  effort,  shuts  off  the  light  from  the  film,  and  also 
stops  the  electric  motor,  should  the  machine  be  driven  by 
electricity.  This  safety-shutter  B  holds  a  semi-circular  flap 
D,  which  is  connected  by  a  small  lever  to  a  rectangular 


Fig.  ii — The  Urban-Joy-IIarris  Anti-Firing  Device.  The 
Dotted  Lines  Show  Action  of  Mechanism  Closing 
Shutter  C  when  Film  F  Breaks  at  K. 

flap  C.  The  flap  D  is  so  adjusted  as  to  hang  over  the  loop 
in  the  film  E  between  the  sprocket  and  the  entrance  to  the 
film  gate.  Under  normal  conditions  the  loop  E  does  not 
come  into  contact  with  the  shutter  D,  but  when  the  film  F 
becomes  broken  below  at  K,  the  loop  E  is  enlarged  sud- 
denly owing  to  the  film  not  being  able  to  pass  through  the 
gate,  with  the  result  that  it  forces  the  flap  D  to  a  vertical 

H 


98  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

position,  and  this  in  turn  throws  the  flap  C  down  over  the 
exposure  hole.  There  is  a  tube  /  which  contains  about 
half-an-ounce  of  mercury  with  an  electrical  contact  at  either 
end,  the  object  of  which  is  to  change  the  centre  of  gravity 
of  the  flap  D,  and  also  to  cut  off  the  supply  of  electric  energy 
to  the  motor.  When  the  machine  is  running  smoothly  this 
tube  /  is  in  a  horizontal  position  making  the  electrical 
connection  at  either  end,  but  when  the  flap  D  rises,  owing 
to  the  enlargement  of  the  loop  E  in  the  film,  the  weight  of 
mercury  is  thrown  to  one  end  of  the  tube,  causing  it  to 
cant  in  such  a  way  as  to  retain  the  flap  D  in  a  vertical 
position.  If  the  film  should  take  fire,  only  the  picture 
before  the  lens  is  consumed.  Even  the  perforated  edges 
remain  untouched,  so  that  the  film  is  not  severed,  and  can 
continue  its  travel  through  the  machine  when  the  break- 
down  is  repaired. 

To  supply  the  light  necessary  to  projection,  acetylene, 
the  oxy-hydrogen  limelight,  and  the  electric  arc  have  all 
been  used ;  but  the  last  is  the  illuminant  most  generally 
favoured.  It  enables  the  maximum  amount  of  light  to  be 
collected  by  the  condenser.  When  the  projection  of  moving 
pictures  was  first  attempted  an  arc  light  was  unavailable, 
because  that  form  of  lighting  had  not  been  adapted  to  the 
magic  lantern.  The  late  T.  C.  Hepworth,  the  eminent 
authority  on  the  lantern,  was  wrestling  with  the  problem, 
but  there  was  no  commercial  apparatus  suited  to  the 
cinematograph.  In  using  electric  light  a  resistance  is  re- 
quired to  absorb  or  dissipate  in  the  form  of  heat  the  current 
over  and  above  that  required  for  the  light.  Many  types  of 
resistances  have  been  devised  for  this  purpose,  to  suit  vary- 
ing requirements.  This  method  of  dealing  with  the  surplus 
current  is,  however,  distinctly  wasteful,  and  accordingly, 
where  picture  projection  is  being  carried  out  on  a  large 
scale,  a  motor  generator  is  adopted.  The  current  derived 
from  the  supply  main  is  utilised  to  drive  an  electric  motor, 
which  in  turn  actuates  a  dynamo,  whereby  current  is  fur- 
nished for  the  light.  This  seems  a  roundabout  process, 
but  it  effects  a  great  economy  in  the  consumption  of  elec- 
tricity. 


ix  HOW   PICTURES   ARE   SHOWN  99 

The  mounting  for  the  lantern  is  also  important.  As 
there  is  continual  movement  in  the  mechanism  owing  to 
the  communication  of  driving  effort,  either  by  hand  or  by 
power,  the  mounting  chosen  must  be  of  a  sufficiently 
massive  character  to  absorb  all  the  vibration  set  up.  Paul 
devised  an  iron  pillar,  to  one  side  of  the  top  of  which  the 
lantern  was  fixed,  while  the  projector  was  attached  to  the 
other.  The  principle  was  similar  to  that  used  for  the 
mounting  of  a  machine  gun,  and  although  the  idea  met 
with  considerable  criticism,  yet  Paul  succeeded  in  pro- 
ducing steadier  pictures  than  were  possible  with  other 
forms  of  mounting.  That  his  idea  was  sound  is  witnessed 
to-day,  for  the  principle  he  advocated  has  been  resuscitated 
in  the  Brockliss  Motiograph,  which  is  mounted  on  a  rigid 
pillar,  and  undoubtedly  throws  a  steadier  picture  than  is 
possible  from  any  other  System  of  supporting  the  projector. 

In  the  majority  of  projecting  mechanisms  a  second  lens 
is  mounted  upon  the  frame,  in  line  with  and  beside  the 
cinematograph  objective.  This  second  lens  is  used  for 
the  projection  of  lantern  slides  for  the  illustration  of  a  song, 
title  announcement,  or  other  purposes.  In  order  to  bring 
the  light  of  the  lamp  into  line  with  this  second  lens  the 
lantern  is  moved  bodily  sideways  the  requisite  distance ; 
the  projector  itself  is  not  touched — it  remains  a  rigid 
fixture. 

Paul  also  adopted  a  driving  system  which  might  be 
revived  profitably  to-day  where  manual  operation  is  prac- 
tised. Instead  of  the  small  handle  placed  somewhat  high, 
calling  for  quick  rotation  and  fatiguing  wrist  movement, 
he  used  a  large  wheel  mounted  at  such  a  height  that  the 
operator,  when  standing  beside,  had  the  lowest  travel  of  the 
handle  almost  at  arm's  length.  The  wheel  being  of  large 
diameter,  a  slow,  steady  revolution  was  sufficient,  which 
caused  no  fatigue,  the  drive  being  transmitted  through  a 
pulley  or  chain  to  the  projector.  In  many  of  the  latest 
picture  palaces,  however,  the  apparatus  is  driven  by  an 
electric  motor,  which  yields  a  more  uniform  speed  and 
conduces  to  steadier  projection. 

I  will  now  take  up  the  distinctive  features  of  some  of  the 

H    2 


ioo  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

best  known  makes  of  projector.  A  comparison  of  the 
latest  Edison  model,  the  "B  Underwriter,"  with  the  first 
kinetoscope,  affords  a  striking  illustration  of  the  advance 
of  cinematography  in  twenty  years.  The  new  machine 
is  constructed  throughout  of  metal,  is  wonderfully  compact, 
and  the  mechanism  has  been  reduced  to  the  acme  of  sim- 
plicity. All  moving  parts  subject  to  heavy  wear  and  tear 
are  made  of  lignum  vitae.  The  shutter  is  of  the  three- 
bladed  type,  while  the  intermittent  action  is  conveyed  by 
the  Maltese  Cross  movement.  Being  rigidly  mounted  upon 
a  heavy  stand,  the  picture  projected  is  very  steady  and  free 
from  all  disconcerting  lateral  and  vertical  movement. 

In  the  "Gaumont  Chrono  "  projector,  the  salient  charac- 
teristic, as  I  have  mentioned  already,  is  the  position  of  the 
shutter,  which  is  placed  between  the  film  and  the  condenser. 
The  film-trap  is  worthy  of  notice  because  it  conduces  very 
materially  to  the  steadiness  of  the  picture  thrown  with 
this  machine.  The  edges  of  the  film  are  gripped  by 
means  of  burnished  steel  runners  or  vertical  clamps,  and 
they  secure  it  in  position  during  exposure  with  the  exact 
degree  of  tension  required  to  obtain  steadiness,  yet  without 
hindering  the  travel  of  the  film  through  the  gate,  or  inflict- 
ing injury  upon  the  celluloid.  The  trap  is  fitted  with  an 
asbestos  shield,  which  serves  to  insulate  the  film  while 
passing  through  the  trap  from  the  intense  rays  of  the  light, 
which  is  continually  playing  upon  the  metal  around  the 
exposure   hole. 

The  dog  movement  has  been  adopted  in  this  apparatus, 
but  upon  an  improved  principle.  Instead  of  striking  the 
film  one  smart  blow  to  jerk  it  through  the  gate,  it  imparts  a 
steady  pushing  action.  The  result  is  that  the  film  does  not 
suffer  any  injury.  A  massive  dog  striking  the  film  heavily 
is  apt  to  produce  cracks  across  the  perforations  at  the  points 
of  impact,  which  in  time  become  weak  spots  in  the  film. 
This  well-conceived  machine  has  met  with  remarkable 
popularity  among  moving  picture  theatres  in  this  country ; 
it  is  an  excellent  example  of  French  engineering  skill, 
wherein  lightness  is  combined  with  strength  and  simplicity. 

The  Ernemann  "Imperator"  projector  commands  de- 
served  attention.     It   is   built  stoutly   so   as   to   last   and 


Z        - 


ix  HOW   PICTURES   ARE   SHOWN  101 

withstand  rough  usage.  Steel  forms  the  constructional 
material  throughout,  and  a  noticeable  feature  is  that  motion 
is  communicated  to  all  driving  parts  through  heavy  gear- 
ing. In  this  machine  the  "Maltese  Cross"  movement  has 
been  brought  to  its  highest  pitch  of  perfection,  being  of 
large  substantial  construction,  and  so  designed  as  to 
obviate  the  objections  to  its  use.  The  driven  part  is  made 
of  hardened  silver  steel,  and  there  are  means  of  taking  up 
all  slack  arising  from  wear  directly  it  becomes  manifest. 
Instead  of  the  cross  being  struck  by  a  pin  on  the  driving 
wheel,  the  latter  carries  a  roller  which  picks  up  the  slotted 
wheel  without  jar  or  noise.  The  mechanism  is  kept  cool 
by  running  in  an  enclosed  oil  bath,  which  tends  to  reduce 
the  wear  and  tear  to  a  minimum,  while  at  the  same  time 
the  machine  is  light  and  easy  running,  a  feature  which 
appeals  to  the  operator. 

Another  machine  which  possesses  many  interesting 
points  is  the  "Silent  Knight,"  its  chief  claim  to  attention 
being,  as  its  name  implies,  quietness  in  running,  combined 
with  easy  operation  and  steadiness  of  the  pictures  pro- 
jected. It  has  the  fire-proof  gate  already  described,  and 
also  aluminium  fire-proof  spool  boxes.  The  movement  is 
the  Maltese  Cross.  Simplicity  has  been  studied  to  the  last 
degree,  and  the  necessity  to  withstand  hard  wear  and  tear, 
as  well  as  rough  handling  in  inexperienced  hands,  has  not 
been  overlooked.  All  the  vital  parts  are  made  of  chilled 
steel  running  in  an  oil  bath,  with  the  necessity  for  adjust- 
ments reduced  to  the  minimum,  though  capable  of  being 
carried  out  easily  when  the  necessity  arrives. 

The  foregoing  by  no  means  exhausts  the  variety  of 
machines  on  the  market.  There  is  the  Pathe"  machine,  a 
masterpiece  of  French  manufacture ;  the  Kamm  projector, 
the  "Empire,"  remarkable  for  its  many  ingenious  devices 
to  secure  protection  against  fire,  the  chief  of  which  is  a 
contrivance  whereby  the  light  is  cut  off  automatically  in 
the  event  of  the  film  breaking,  although  the  machine  is 
still  running,  and  so  on.  In  every  instance  the  direct  aim 
is  the  evolution  of  a  projector  which  will  produce  an 
absolutely  steady  picture,  free  from  flickering  and  flutter- 
ing,   and  as  noiseless   in   operation   as   human    skill    can 


102  MOVING   PICTURES  ch.  ix 

contrive.  In  this  particular  field  England  and  the  Con- 
tinent are  ahead  of  the  United  States  manufacturers. 
Except  in  one  or  two  instances  the  American  product  is 
distinctly  inferior.  It  looks  attractive,  but  its  results  fail  to 
stand  comparison  with  the  British  and  French  machines. 
The  projecting  features  of  the  moving  picture  industry  in 
the  United  States  have  not  advanced  to  the  high  state  of 
excellency  attained  in  Europe. 

In  projecting,  the  pictures  have  to  be  thrown  upon  the 
screen  at  the  same  speed  as  that  at  which  they  were  taken 
by  the  camera,  that  is,  if  steady  continuous  motion  is  to  be 
secured.  The  average  speed  is,  as  I  have  said,  about  sixteen 
pictures  per  second,  and  it  is  essential  that  the  handle 
should  be  rotated  at  a  regular  uniform  pace.  Outside 
influences  appear  to  exercise  a  distinct  effect  upon  this 
manual  action,  just  as  we  have  seen  them  do  in  the  process 
of  taking  the  original  picture.  The  musical  accompani- 
ment is  likely  to  induce  the  inexperienced  operator  inadver- 
tently to  accelerate  or  retard  the  speed  of  projection.  For 
this  reason,  power  driving  is  coming  more  and  more  into 
use,  the  motion  being  communicated  to  the  mechanism  by 
means  of  a  small  electric  motor.  The  results  are  far 
superior  to  those  produced  by  the  average  operator,  though 
not  comparable  to  projection  by  a  practised  and  intelligent 
hand.  The  latter  can  tell  the  approximate  speed  at  which 
the  pictures  were  taken,  and  can  adjust  his  speed  to  a  far 
greater  nicety  than  is  possible  by  a  mechanical  agency 
which  maintains  a  constant  speed. 


CHAPTER  X 

THE  STUDIO  FOR  STAGING  MOVING  PICTURE  PLAYS 

When  the  cinematograph  made  its  bow  to  the  public 
the  latter  were  satisfied  with  the  reproduction  in  animation 
of  scenes  and  incidents  associated  with  every-day  life — 
rather  trivial  unrehearsed  incidents  which  were  void  of 
newspaper  interest.  There  was  the  shoeblack  at  work,  the 
firing  of  a  big  gun,  athletes  at  practice,  and  so  on. 
Humour  was  presented  in  Mammy  washing  her  young 
hopeful,  a  great  favourite  for  many  years,  likewise  in  a 
set  of  films  depicting  a  mischievous  youth  indulging  in 
pranks  with  the  garden  hose. 

But  the  popular  taste  changed  in  the  course  of  time. 
The  audience  became  fastidious,  and  demanded  novelty. 
There  was  a  clamour  for  picture-plays.  The  man  in  the 
street  saw  no  reason  why  dramas,  tragedies,  comedies  and 
farces  should  not  be  reproduced  in  pantomime  upon  the 
screen.  This  popular  demand  was  by  no  means  easy  to 
meet.  Obviously  plays  could  not  be  photographed  upon 
the  ordinary  stage  in  the  theatre  owing  to  difficulties  of 
lighting.  Special  arrangements  would  entail  a  certain 
outlay,  to  be  entered  upon  without  knowing  whether  the 
results  would  justify  the  expense  incurred.  A  further 
complication  lay  in  the  attitude  of  the  showmen  them- 
selves. They  wanted  plays,  but  not  with  actors  and 
actresses,  or  "anything  theatrical";  and  they  protested 
against  the  incursion  of  the  "legitimate"  into  their  field. 

Robert  Paul  decided  to  test  the  public  taste  with  a 
little  comedy  which  he  called  "The  Soldier's  Courtship." 
The  roof  of  the  Alhambra  Theatre,  in  Leicester  Square. 


io+  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

was  extemporised  as  a  stage,  and  Mr.  Moul,  the  manager, 
who  had  realised  the  possibilities  of  the  cinematograph, 
acted  as  stage  manager.  Scenery  and  properties  were 
brought  up  from  the  theatre  below,  and  the  assistance  of 
one  or  two  actresses  and  actors  were  enlisted.  With  much' 
difficulty  a  film  measuring  40  feet  in  length  was  obtained 
— the  standard  length  of  the  time,  though  it  appears 
insignificant  in  comparison  with  the  films  of  to-day,  which 
vary  between  500  and  3,000  feet  in  length.  In  640  con- 
secutive pictures  a  pretty  little  "tabloid"  comedy  was 
expressed. 

Some  apprehension  was  entertained  as  to  the  reception 
the  effort  would  receive.  However,  all  doubts  and 
anxieties  melted  instantaneously  when  the  picture  was 
shown  for  the  first  time.  The  audience  gave  it  a  hearty 
welcome,  and  a  new  era  dawned  in  the  history  of  cinemato- 
graphy. This  initial  effort — the  first  animated  "picture 
play  "  produced  in  Great  Britain — tempted  Paul  to  more 
ambitious  undertakings. 

A  plot  of  land  was  acquired  at  New  Southgate  in  North 
London,  and  here  the  first  building  was  erected  designed 
essentially  for  the  staging  of  picture  plays.  It  was  a  com- 
bination of  a  theatre  with  an  ordinary  photographic  studio 
utilised  for  portraiture,  in  a  commodious  lofty  hall,  with 
a  proscenium  opening  measuring  18  feet  in  width  by  13 
feet  in  height.  The  stage  level  was  about  8  feet  above 
the  ground,  the  under  part  being  available  for  working 
effects  from  below,  such  as  bridges,  stage  traps,  and  other 
artifices  of  the  playhouse.  The  front  wall,  which  faced 
the  northern  sky,  was  divided  vertically  so  as  to  permit  the 
sections  to  be  opened  out  on  either  side  to  any  required 
extent  to  reveal  the  interior.  The  front  roof,  set  at  a 
sharp  angle  was  glazed  to  give  top  light. 

A  special  platform,  running  on  a  wheeled  carriage  and 
track,  the  deck  of  which  was  level  with  the  floor  of  the 
stage,  was  laid  opposite  and  at  right  angles  to  the  pro- 
scenium opening,  to  accommodate  the  camera  and  operator. 
Looking  into  the  studio  from  this  point,  one  saw  a  familiar 
theatre  stage,  with  wings,  flies,  and  other  facilities.     Such 


_  ,_£ 


r.       — 


x  STAGING   MOVING   PICTURE    PLAYS        105 

was  the  earliest  venture  in  what  is  now  one  of  the  most 
important  branches  in  the  cinematographic  industry. 
Upon  that  stage  Paul  himself  produced  several  hundred 
plays  of  infinite  variety,  comedy,  tragedy,  melodrama, 
farce,  and  magic. 

In  the  United  States  a  crude  attempt  in  the  same  direc- 
tion was  made  by  Thomas  A.  Edison  in  order  to  produce 
films  for  his  kinetoscope.  His  building  was  unpretentious 
in  the  fullest  sense  of  the  word. 

It  was  of  the  flimsiest  character,  with  a  movable  top, 
and  covered  externally  with  roofing  material.  It  became 
known  colloquially  as  the  "Black  Maria,"  a  singularly 
appropriate  name.  A  notable  feature  was  its  central 
mounting  upon  a  pivot,  and  a  circular  track  for  wheels 
placed  under  the  extreme  edges  of  the  building.  The 
structure  could  thus  be  rotated  in  either  direction  like  a 
turn-table,  according  to  the  position  of  the  sun,  so  that  the 
studio  could  be  used  at  any  time  of  the  day.  As  the 
kinetoscope  failed  to  arouse  public  enthusiasm,  work  in 
the  studio  was  abandoned,  until  Edison,  who  had  seen  the 
tendency  towards  projecting  pictures  upon  an  enlarged 
scale  before  audiences,  was  able  to  perfect  his  projector. 

At  about  the  same  time  another  American  firm  com- 
menced work  in  the  same  field — the  American  Mutoscope 
Company.  Their  studio  was  open-air  in  the  fullest  sense 
of  the  word;  the  stage  was  the  roof  of  their  own  building 
in  New  York  City.  A  heavy  network  of  steel  beams  was 
laid  down,  upon  which  the  stage  was  erected.  Opposite 
was  a  small  hut  built  of  corrugated  iron,  which  housed 
the  camera,  its  accessories,  and  operator.  The  stage  could 
be  swung  round  upon  its  track  so  that  the  bright  sunlight 
fell  squarely  upon  the  scene,  and  similarly  the  camera 
house  could  be  moved  over  its  wheeled  track  to  assume 
the  desired  position  for  taking  the  pictures. 

American  enterprise,  however,  grew  dissatisfied  with 
the  short  lengths  of  the  picture  films  then  produced. 
Certain  interests  in  New  York  resolved  upon  a  master- 
stroke. They  cherished  the  idea  of  preparing  something 
staggering   in    its   sensationalism  :     the    production    of   a 


106  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

gigantic  film  upon  some  striking  subject  which  should 
startle  the  cinematographic  world,  and  completely  eclipse 
all  previous  efforts  in  the  field.  They  succeeded  to  an 
extent  which  surpassed  their  own  most  sanguine  anticipa- 
tions. 

After  prolonged  discussion  it  was  decided  that  the 
"  Passion  Play  "  would  prove  a  powerful  magnet  with  the 
public.  But  where  was  the  man  to  be  found  sufficiently 
daring  to  attempt  to  carry  out  the  project  ?  With  the 
crude  facilities  available  at  that  time  the  task  was  one  not 
lightly  to  be  undertaken.  The  New  York  interests 
approached  Mr.  Richard  G.  Hollaman,  the  President  of 
the  Eden  Musee,  who  had  been  intimately  identified  with 
the  popularisation  of  moving  pictures  ever  since  the  days 
of  the  kinetoscope. 

Mr.  Hollaman  was  somewhat  startled  by  the  proposals, 
and  at  first  considered  the  task  entirely  out  of  his  province, 
and  quite  beyond  him.  However,  he  deliberated  upon  the 
suggestion,  and  at  length  consented  to  undertake  the  work. 
He  secured  the  assistance  of  Mr.  John  Vincent  as  stage 
manager,  and  Mr.  Albert  Eaves  as  costumier.  No  expense 
was  to  be  spared  in  its  mounting — it  was  to  be  the  most 
gorgeous  production  of  the  day.  The  Salmi  Morse  version 
of  the  "  Passion  Play "  was  prepared  especially  for  the 
cinematograph,  and  the  company  was  enrolled. 

The  next  obstacle  was  in  getting  the  play  staged.  No 
studio-theatre  existed  in  America  at  that  time,  and  the 
open  air  roof-stages  were  far  from  being  suited  to  the  work 
even  if  they  had  been  available.  As  a  result  the  producers 
had  to  make  their  own  arrangements.  The  roof  of  the 
Grand  Central  Palace  in  New  York  was  selected,  and  in 
the  middle  of  November,  1897,  rehearsals  commenced. 
Several  weeks  were  devoted  to  the  preparation,  and  no  less 
than  $16,000  (^3,200)  were  spent  upon  the  preliminaries. 
The  film  ran  to  three  reels,  or  about  3,000  feet,  and  some 
48,000  separate  pictures.  It  was  the  first  three-reel  film 
subject  ever  produced  in  the  United  States,  if  not  in  the 
world. 

The  first  exhibition  took  place  at  the  Eden  Musee,  and 


x  STAGING   MOVING   PICTURE   PLAYS        107 

required  about  55  minutes  to  project.  It  created  a 
tremendous  sensation.  Some  idea  of  its  popularity  may 
be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  it  ran  continuously  for  six 
months.  Copies  of  the  film  were  printed  off  and  sold 
broadcast  throughout  the  United  States,  the  success  of  the 
New  York  display  ensuring  it  a  warm  reception  wherever 
it  was  exhibited.  Few  films  have  created  such  enthusiasm 
as  did  the  "Passion  Play,"  and  it  has  never  lost  its  popu- 
larity. As  Mr.  Hollaman  was  not  associated  with  the 
film-manufacturing  side  of  the  industry,  he  accepted  the 
first  offer  he  received  for  the  negative.  Thus  the  "Passion 
Play  "  passed  into  the  hands  of  Edison,  who  starred  the 
production  in  his  catalogue  of  films  for  a  considerable 
period. 

Meantime  the  movement  went  on  in  Great  Britain. 
Shortly  after  Paul  brought  his  studio  stage  into  full  swing, 
a  second  establishment  came  into  existence  at  Hove,  on 
the  Sussex  coast.  The  promoter  of  this  enterprise  was  Mr. 
James  A.  Williamson,  who,  as  the  founder  of  the  Hove 
Camera  Club,  had  been  introduced  to  the  cinematograph 
in  his  official  duties.  He  became  fascinated  with  the  work, 
and  procured  a  projector,  but  at  first  confined  his  efforts 
to  showing  moving  pictures  for  the  edification  and  en- 
lightenment of  his  interested  club-fellows.  Then  he 
decided  to  participate  in  the  taking  of  the  pictures.  The 
camera  at  that  time,  however,  was  so  expensive  that  he 
resorted  to  an  ingenious  expedient.  He  took  the  lantern 
projector,  which  is  similar  in  its  design  and  operation  to 
the  camera  mechanism,  and  fitted  this  into  a  light-tight 
box  carrying  the  spools  for  the  unexposed  and  exposed 
films.  With  this  apparatus  he  secured  many  interesting 
albeit  conventional  subjects,  with  which  the  public  was 
content  at  that  time. 

Meanwhile,  Mr.  Esme  Collings,  the  well-known  portrait 
photographer,  had  entered  into  partnership  with  W.  F. 
Greene,  who  produced  the  first  model  of  a  cinematographic 
or  chronophotographic  apparatus,  as  it  was  called.  With 
his  camera  Mr.  Collings  secured  an  excellent  varied  series 
of  pictures.     But  after  a  time  he  lost  interest  in  cinemato- 


108  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

graphy,  when  his  stock  of  films  was  acquired  by  Mr. 
Williamson.  The  latter  now  decided  to  enter  the  stage- 
picture  film  field,  and  a  commodious  and  well-equipped 
studio  was  erected  on  the  outskirts  of  Hove.  His 
films,  owing  to  their  high  technical  or  photographic  quali- 
ties, attracted  widespread  attention,  especially  in  America. 
In  fact,  the  United  States  constituted  his  most  valuable 
market,  the  Williamson  productions  being  in  great 
demand.  Several  of  his  pictures,  as  well  as  those  of  Paul, 
created  a  sensation,  and  these  two  producers  practically 
controlled  the  play-picture  film  market  of  the  world  for 
many  years.  The  period  between  1896  and  1900  was  most 
critical  in  the  cinematograph  industry,  and  it  was  due 
mainly  to  the  perseverance  of  the  two  pioneers  that  it 
became  firmly  established.  Lovers  of  moving  pictures 
to-day  realise  little  of  the  innumerable  difficulties  which 
confronted  Paul  and  Williamson,  and  the  puzzling 
obstacles  which  they  had  to  break  down.  They  were 
dependent  upon  their  own  resources  and  ingenuity,  and 
had  to  learn  by  their  own  mistakes  instead  of  by  the 
example  of  others.  They  had  to  be  photographic  artists, 
scene  painters,  stage  carpenters,  and  stage  managers. 

Both  Paul  and  Williamson  have  now  retired  from  the 
play-picture  producing  business,  the  first-named  to  revert 
entirely  to  his  original  occupation,  and  the  second  to  the 
mechanical  side  of  the  industry,  the  manufacture  of  per- 
forators, printing  machines,  and  so  forth.  His  studio  was 
acquired  for  the  production  of  Kinemacolor  films,  and  is 
in  active  use  to-day  during  the  summer  months  of  the  year 
for  the  production  of  plays  in  natural  colours. 

Paul  and  Williamson  led  the  way  in  the  manufacturing 
of  picture  films,  and  for  a  time  controlled  the  market. 
They  were  followed  by  several  others,  until  about  half-a- 
dozen  studio-theatres  were  scattered  over  the  country.  The 
scope  of  their  work  was  somewhat  limited,  yet  their 
products  commanded  a  wide  sale.  They  dominated  the 
American  market ;  Williamson  alone  furnished  some  60 
or  80  films  a  week  for  the  cinematograph  theatres  of  the 
United  States,  and  he  was  patronised  also  by  the  German 


**5 

3S 


a     i 


<    -a 


EXTERIOR    OF   THE    MODERN    EDISON    FII.M-l'I.AY-PRODUCINC.    THEATRE. 

This  structure  contrasts  with  the  "  Black  Maria.''     It  is  a  lofty  glass  building:,  ioo  feet  long  by 
60  feet  wide  and  45  feet  high,  and  cost  ,620,000. — See  page  112. 


BUILDING   A   SOLID   SET    IOK    "THE   TWO   ORPHANS." 

This  scene,  on  one  of  the  Selig  open-air  stages,  shows  the  care  and  expense  taken  to  mount 
a  modern  film-play. — See  page  112. 


x  STAGING   MOVING   PICTURE   PLAYS        109 

public.  Unfortunately,  however,  the  industry  in  Great 
Britain  did  not  develop  so  promisingly  as  these  early 
achievements  augured.  The  British  producer  does  not 
appear  to  be  able  to  gain  the  confidence  of  the  capitalist ; 
he  is  still  as  ambitious  and  as  capable  as  ever,  as  witness 
the  production  of  Tennyson's  "Maud,"  but  he  is  handi- 
capped on  every  side.  He  finds  it  increasingly  difficult 
to  compete  with  his  foreign  rivals.  To-day  there  are  only 
two  fields  in  which  he  reigns  supreme — popular  drama  and 
comedy ;  and  this  slight  modicum  of  success  is  due  rather 
to  the  fact  that  the  British  public  is  somewhat  insular  in 
its  tastes;  it  does  not  understand  foreign  humour,  and  will 
not  tolerate  foreign  tragedy. 

About  six  years  ago  the  cinematograph  play  underwent 
a  great  change.  Up  to  that  time  the  productions  were 
somewhat  conventional  both  in  plot  and  mounting.  The 
scenery  was  commonplace,  and  the  dramatis  personal,  as 
a  rule,  comprised  only  about  half-a-dozen  persons.  More- 
over, the  pictures  betrayed  a  sad  deficiency  in  stage 
technique,  a  result  due  entirely  to  the  fact  that  the 
producers  were  not  conversant  with  stage-craft. 

The  French  producers  saw  a  unique  opportunity,  and 
grasped  it  promptly.  Foremost  in  the  movement  was  the 
firm  of  Pathe  Freres,  which  is  to-day  one  of  the  largest 
and  most  enterprising  film-producing  establishments  in  the 
world.  They  launched  out  upon  the  most  elaborate  lines. 
Huge  stages  or  studios,  with  the  latest  appliances,  which 
from  the  technical  point  of  view  would  rival  the  famous 
Drury  Lane  stage,  were  constructed  at  immense  cost, 
eminent  stage  managers,  versed  in  every  phase  of  the 
technique  of  production,  were  obtained  from  the  theatres, 
while  the  services  of  the  foremost  French  actors  and 
actresses  were  secured.  The  scenery  was  prepared  upon 
an  extensive  scale,  the  mounting  was  lavish,  and  plays 
which  hitherto  had  been  considered  beyond  the  scope  of 
the  picture-producer  were  taken  in  hand  boldly.  If  the 
British  producers  introduced  the  stage-play  to  the  cinema- 
tograph film,  the  French  certainly  perfected  the  idea,  and 
set  the  elaborate  production  upon  its  feet.      Some  of  the 


no  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

plays  which  the  French  producers  have  filmed  are 
extremely  bold  in  their  conception,  as  well  as  being 
wonders  of  stage-craft,  scenery,  and  photography.  At  the 
present  moment  the  Pathe  firm  has  no  less  than  eight  stage 
managers  engaged  in  the  production  of  picture  plays  of 
every  description;  the  Gaumont  establishment,  which  is 
pressing  the  Pathe  hard  for  first  rank,  has  six  producers, 
while  several  other  firms  in  the  same  country  have 
elaborate  organisations.  Gorgeousness  of  production  is 
the  predominant  key-note,  associated  with  acting  excel- 
lence ;  and  the  policy  has  been  attended  with  merited 
success. 

The  triumph  of  the  British  and  subsequently  of  the 
French  film  producers  reached  the  United  States.  Like  a 
huge  wave  the  European  films  overwhelmed  the  country. 
In  comparison,  the  American  productions  were  trash.  The 
native  firms  were  confronted  with  extinction  unless  they 
made  a  bold  and  united  stand,  which  was  hardly  to  be 
expected,  for  at  that  time  the  American  cinematograph 
world  was  in  a  state  of  chaos.  Litigation  was  raging  on 
all  sides.  Edison  was  engaged  in  a  deadly  struggle  to 
maintain  his  position  according  to  his  original,  or  kineto- 
scope,  patent.  As  a  result  of  the  turmoil,  the  industry 
became  unsettled,  and  the  money  which  should  have  been 
expended  in  the  furtherance  of  the  craft,  simply  went  to 
fill  the  pockets  of  hungry  lawyers.  Edison  triumphed  at 
last;  his  claim  was  sustained  by  the  Supreme  Court.  The 
establishment  of  this  contested  point  cleared  the  air,  and 
one  outcome  was  the  formation  of  a  Cinematograph  Trust 
or  community  of  interests  to  resist  foreign  invasion. 
Several  firms  enlisted  under  the  banner  of  the  Edison 
patent — other  interests  which  still  disputed  his  claim  com- 
bined to  form  a  second  trust. 

The  first  move  of  the  combination  was  to  eliminate  the 
foreign  competition  from  which  it  was  suffering  so  disas- 
trously. Special  terms  were  drawn  up  which  European 
firms  were  compelled  to  observe  under  threat  of  their  films 
being  forbidden  to  the  country.  The  European  producers, 
foreseeing  the  loss  of  a  valuable  market,  tried  desperately 


x  STAGING   MOVING   PICTURE   PLAYS        m 

to  mitigate  this  drastic  policy,  but  in  vain.  The  American 
terms  were  :  either  limited  sale,  as  stipulated  by  the  trust, 
or  else  complete  boycott.  The  British  producers  saw  their 
most  remunerative  market  eliminated  at  a  stroke.  William- 
son suffered  particularly  from  the  decision,  for  all  standing- 
contracts  were  cancelled.  As  he  never  had  made  strenuous 
attempts  to  cultivate  the  British  market,  which  was  open 
to  producers  in  all  parts  of  the  world  without  the  slightest 
restraint,  but  had  concentrated  his  efforts  upon  pleasing 
his  United  States  clients,  he  concluded  that  retirement 
from  play  production  was  the  wisest  course,  especially  as 
the  mechanical  side  of  the  industry  was  so  full  of  attractive 
promise. 

The  American  producers,  entrenched  firmly  behind  the 
wall  of  protection,  set  to  work  energetically  to  make  up 
for  lost  time.  The  story  of  the  automobile  industry,  which 
was  similarly  hindered  in  its  infancy  by  patent  wars,  was 
repeated.  The  Americans  imitated  the  French  example 
and  embarked  upon  the  most  elaborate  enterprises.  Keen 
rivalry  was  displayed  between  the  various  concerns  to 
acquire  the  best  managers  of  the  legitimate  stage,  with  the 
result  that  the  theatre  suffered  heavily.  Several  stage 
managers,  seeing  the  trend  of  events,  and  realising  that 
cinematographic  picture  plays  possessed  a  tremendous 
future,  abandoned  their  old  field  and  gave  their  energies 
to  the  new  one,  which  offered  such  great  scope  for  their 
abilities. 

The  American  stage,  like  that  of  Great  Britain,  France, 
Germany,  and  Italy,  had  regarded  the  picture  play  with 
disdain,  and  had  ridiculed  the  possibility  of  its  ever 
becoming  a  spirited  competitor  to  their  particular  interests. 
To-day  the  American  stage  is  engaged  in  a  struggle  for 
supremacy  with  the  moving-picture  theatre.  The 
American  picture  producers  erected  huge  studio-theatres, 
with  every  convenience,  capable  of  producing  any  type  of 
play  demanded,  and  giving  the  author  greater  opportunity 
for  effect  than  ever  the  legitimate  stage  could  hope  to 
offer. 

It    is    difficult    to    realise   the    proportions    which    these 


ii2  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

American  studio-stages  have  attained,  or  the  work  they 
can  carry  out.  Take  the  Edison  Company  for  instance. 
We  have  seen  the  humble  little  "Black  Maria"  which 
sufficed  to  supply  the  film  needs  of  the  Kinetoscope  in 
1892.  The  present  Edison  studio,  which  cost  something 
like  $100,000  (,£20,000)  to  build,  is  a  huge  glass  building 
measuring  100  feet  in  length,  by  60  feet  in  width,  and  has 
a  height  of  45  feet.  The  stage  has  a  proscenium  opening 
of  30  feet  and  an  area  of  2,400  feet.  In  addition  there  is 
a  huge  water-tank  with  a  capacity  of  130,000  gallons,  which 
is  used  for  aquatic  spectacles. 

The  Edison  establishment  is  but  one  of  many.  In 
Brooklyn  the  Vitagraph  Company  has  a  huge  building, 
the  Lubin  films  are  produced  in  spacious  studios  in  Phila- 
delphia, while  Chicago  boasts  the  famous  Essanay  and 
Selig  plants.  The  latter  is  especially  noteworthy  owing 
to  its  great  size  and  the  remarkable  plays  which  it  pro- 
duces tor  the  delight  of  moving-picture  lovers  in  all  parts 
of  the  world.  It  is  devoted  exclusively  to  making  films, 
and  finds  employment  for  400  hands.  The  main  studio, 
in  which  are  two  stages,  measures  179  feet  in  length  by 
80  feet  wide.  In  addition  to  this  indoor  establishment, 
there  are  between  two  and  three  acres  of  surrounding  land 
which  have  been  enclosed  for  outdoor  work.  This  field, 
if  such  it  may  be  called,  presents  a  strange  sight.  It  is 
dotted  with  little  groups  of  scenery.  Here  is  a  mediaeval 
castle  with  ruined  battlements;  a  few  yards  away  to  the 
right  is  a  modern  street ;  while  on  the  left  is  the  interior 
of  a  stately  drawing-room.  In  one  corner  are  a  number 
of  artificial  hills  fashioned  by  the  dumping  of  earth,  criss- 
crossed with  paths  and  trails.  It  is  an  incongruous  medley 
of  periods  and  scenes,  but  one  and  all  little  assemblages 
of  back-cloths  and  wings  represent  a  stage,  and  one  and 
all  face  the  southern  sun.  Upon  these  little  stages  the 
plays  are  produced. 

The  Selig  organisation  is  one  of  the  largest  in  the 
United  States,  having,  in  addition  to  the  Chicago  estab- 
lishment, another  theatre  at  Los  Angeles  on  the  Pacific 
coast,  devoted  to  the  portrayal  of  pictures  having  a  western 


—  2    V 


<      ~J2 


o    •> 

63       ~ 


THE    WARDROBE    ROOM    AT   THE    SELIG    FILM    FACTORY. 
Over  7,000  costumes  of  all  descriptions  are  stored  ready  for  instant   use. 


THE    SEUG    STOCK    COMPANY    AT    LOS    ANGELES. 

The  remarkable  development  of  the  picture-play  industry  has  resulted  in  the  acquisition   of   leading 
actors  and  actresses  by  the  largest  producers.       High  salaries  are  paid   for  the   exclusive   service.-; 

of  eminent  artistes. 


x  STAGING   MOVING   PICTURE   PLAYS        113 

setting.  There  is  the  Pacific  Ocean  on  one  side  to  form 
a  background  for  marine  incidents ;  the  Sierras,  frowning 
down  upon  the  coast,  provide  a  natural  background  for 
subjects  set  among  the  mountains ;  while  within  easy  reach 
is  the  vast  stretch  of  Nevada  desert,  where  the  atmosphere 
of  the  Sahara  of  Africa,  or  the  great  wastes  of  Australia, 
can  be  reproduced.  The  Chicago  studio  is  provided  with 
an  artificial  pool  of  60,000  gallons,  where  a  lake,  lagoon, 
or  swamp  environment  to  a  picture  can  be  secured. 

The  modern  cinematograph  studio-stage  is  far  more 
elaborately  equipped  for  the  production  of  effects  than  its 
counterpart  behind  the  footlights,  while  the  attendant 
plant  is  overwhelmingly  extensive.  The  stage  of  Drury 
Lane  Theatre  in  London  and  of  the  Opera  House  at  Paris 
respectively  are  considered  marvellous  homes  of  stage- 
craft, and  regarded  as  models  of  equipment.  But  com- 
pared with  the  great  French,  Italian,  or  American  cine- 
matograph studio-stages,  they  are  insignificant.  Large, 
well-lighted  and  spacious  rooms  are  set  apart  for  the  stage 
carpenters  and  the  scene  painters  to  prepare  the  back- 
cloths,  wings,  and  flats.  This  work  alone,  owing  to  the 
high  pressure  at  which  production  is  maintained,  affords 
employment  to  a  large  staff.  As  the  average  output  is 
three  films  per  week — the  Edison  establishment  produces 
four  or  five  subjects  in  that  time — the  scene  painters  are 
kept  busily  engaged  from  morning  to  night.  All  scenery 
has  to  be  painted  in  black  and  white,  and  the  excellence 
of  the  work  plays  an  important  part  in  the  effect  of  the 
picture,  for  the  camera  is  ruthless  in  its  exposure  of 
indifferent  work.  The  scene  may  be  the  interior  of  a 
shack,  or  a  sylvan  valley  with  a  river  winding  like  a  ribbon 
of  silver  among  the  trees  and  a  stately  castle  rearing  above 
the  foliage.  In  each  instance  the  same  artistic  care  is 
demanded,  for  it  must  be  remembered  that  by  the  time 
the  picture  reaches  the  screen  it  is  of  the  same  dimensions 
as  the  original,  or  even  larger. 

As  the  picture-play  producer  roams  through  all  the 
periods  of  history  in  all  countries,  a  large  stock  of  pro- 
perties and  an   extensive  wardrobe   must   be   maintained. 

1 


ii4  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

The  Selig  establishment  in  Chicago  has  a  wardrobe  in 
which  are  carefully  packed  and  labelled  ready  for  instant 
use  no  fewer  than  7,000  costumes,  of  all  countries  and 
peoples  scattered  between  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  circles, 
and  ranging  from  prehistoric  times  through  the  picturesque 
middle  ages  to  the  prosaic  twentieth  century. 

From  morning  to  night  the  studio-stage  echoes  the  ring 
of  hammers  and  the  shouts  of  the  stage  carpenters  as  they 
set  this  scene  or  strike  that.  Frowning  masonry  castles 
are  pulled  down,  and  suburban  villas  rise  up  with  greater 
speed  than  their  jerry-built  prototypes  in  bricks  and 
mortar.  The  numerous  dressing  rooms  are  busy  hives, 
where  actors  and  actresses  change  swiftly  from  one  cos- 
tume, age,  and  clime  to  another,  separated  from  it  by 
centuries. 

When  the  play  is  cinematographed  indoors,  a  battery 
of  powerful  electric  lights  is  placed  overhead  in  front  of 
the  stage,  corresponding  to  theatrical  top-lights,  and 
throwing  a  powerful  glare  upon  the  scene.  They  are  con- 
trolled by  switches,  so  that  the  light  can  be  concentrated 
as  desired.  When  the  lights  are  in  full  blast,  more  than 
80,000  candle-power  may  be  thrown  upon  the  stage.  In 
addition,  other  lights  are  disposed  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
ducing different  effects,  so  that  upon  a  large  studio-stage  a 
body  of  well-trained  electricians  is  indispensable. 

The  scene  itself  occupies  but  a  small  space,  generally 
about  12  or  16  feet  in  width.  As  a  rule  the  camera  is 
brought  within  a  few  feet  of  the  picture,  in  order  that  the 
actors  may  be  photographed  as  large  as  possible.  On  the 
floor  on  either  side  battens  are  laid  to  indicate  the  limits 
within  which  actors  and  actresses  must  move.  Beyond 
these  confines  is  to  vanish  from  the  scene,  and  the  stage 
manager  may  be  heard  over  the  whirr  of  the  camera 
shouting  peremptorily  to  one  or  other  of  the  company  to 
keep  in  the  picture. 

The  large  producer  thinks  expense  is  a  secondary  con- 
sideration in  the  preparation  of  plays.  A  simple  conven- 
tional modern  comedy  costs  about  ^50  ($250),  while  a 
gorgeous  production  runs  well  into  ,£6,000  ($30,000).     On 


x  STAGING   MOVING   PICTURE   PLAYS        115 

the  average,  about  150,000  feet  of  film  are  placed  on  the 
British  market  every  week,  and  this  quantity  is  steadily 
increasing.  It  is  computed  that  there  are  some  50,000 
picture  theatres  scattered  throughout  the  world,  and  as  the 
number  thereof  is  increasing  daily  the  supply  of  films  has 
by  no  means  yet  reached  the  limits  of  demand. 


I  2 


CHAPTER    XI 

THE   CINEMATOGRAPH   AS    A    RECORDER   OF   TOPICAL    EVENTS  : 
SCENIC    FILMS. 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  programme  of  the  average 
picture  palace  of  to-day  is  chiefly  occupied  with  film  plays, 
nevertheless  the  greatest  attraction  is  undoubtedly  the 
"topical  picture."  British  audiences  were  first  introduced 
to  its  possibilities  by  seeing  the  1896  Derby  re-run  before 
their  eyes  on  the  screen  in  the  Alhambra  Theatre,  creating 
a  tremendous  sensation.  In  fact,  the  reproduction  of  this 
classic  British  horse-race  upon  the  white  sheet  twenty-four 
hours  after  it  was  run  excited  more  attention  than  the  actual 
race  itself.  In  those  days  cinematography  was  unfamiliar 
to  the  general  public,  and  those  who  followed  the  race  upon 
the  screen  could  not  resist  rubbing  their  eyes  in  amazement : 
it  seemed  scarcely  credible.  Certainly,  very  few  items 
of  sensational  interest  have  ever  created  such  a  deep  im- 
pression and  brought  such  heavy  receipts  to  the  box-office 
of  this  famous  vaudeville  house  as  the  first  Derby  film. 

The  manner  in  which  the  film  was  obtained  was  typical 
of  Paul's  quiet,  unassuming  methods.  His  "animato- 
graph  "  had  become  established  firmly  at  the  Alhambra,  and 
he  was  always  on  the  alert  to  secure  new  and  striking 
subjects.  When  he  decided  to  attempt  the  representation 
of  the  classic  race,  he  told  no  one,  and  sought  no  favours 
to  obtain  commanding  positions  from  which  to  photograph 
the  contest.  On  the  morning  of  the  race  he  appeared  at 
Epsom.  He  chartered  a  wagonette,  upon  the  seats  of 
which  he  intended  to  set  up  his  tripod  and  camera.  He 
hoped  to  be  able  to  secure  a  good  position  unobserved,  but 
he  came  near  to  having  his  plans  upset. 

When  he  arrived  on  the  course,  one  of  the  itinerant  booth- 

u6 


ch.  xi        RECORDER   OF  TOPICAL   EVENTS         117 

holders,  a  pugnacious,  gipsy-like  individual,  thought  the 
vehicle  was  some  form  of  rival  side-show  and  barred  its 
progress.  An  altercation  ensued,  but  Paul  drove  on  with 
the  enraged  gipsy  in  pursuit.  The  latter,  seeing  that  his 
irate  remonstrances  were  of  no  avail,  threatened  to  take  the 
law  into  his  own  hands  and  to  upset  the  offending  vehicle 
and  its  strange  contents.  Paul  thwarted  this  contingency 
by  tying  the  wheels  of  his  vehicle  firmly  to  the  rails,  along- 
side of  which  he  had  taken  up  his  position,  and  the  film 
was  secured  without  further  untoward  developments. 

From  the  night  on  which  the  Derby  was  run  at  the 
Alhambra,  the  success  of  the  topical  film  has  been  estab- 
lished. Scarcely  an  item  of  absorbing  public  interest 
escapes  being  recorded.  Probably  no  topical  film  has 
created  such  enthusiasm  as  that  which  Paul  secured  of  the 
"Prince's  Derby"  when  the  late  King  Edward  VII.,  as 
Prince  of  Wales,  carried  off  the  blue  riband  of  the  British 
turf.  The  Alhambra  Theatre  was  converted  into  a  repro- 
duction of  the  famous  course,  for  the  entire  audience 
cheered  the  moving  pictures  with  as  much  gusto  as  if  they 
were  following  the  actual  struggle  on  Epsom  Downs,  and 
would  not  desist  until  the  film  had  been  passed  across  the 
screen  three  times.  Paul  cinematographed  the  Derby  on 
no  less  than  six  consecutive  occasions,  and  there  is  probably 
no  established  British  annual  event  which  he  has  not 
recorded. 

In  the  early  days,  as  Paul  was  practically  in  full  posses- 
sion of  the  topical  film  field,  there  was  an  entire  absence  of 
that  haste  of  competition.  Then  it  was  immaterial  whether 
the  film  were  shown  one  or  two  days  after  the  event.  The 
many  processes  which  had  to  be  carried  out  between  the 
securing  of  the  negative  and  the  production  of  the  positive 
print  for  the  projector  were  not  hurried,  and  in  fact  could 
not  be  accelerated  very  well,  if  good  results  were  desired. 
But  as  other  firms  appeared  on  the  scene,  keen  rivalry 
sprang  up.  The  various  establishments  left  no  stone  un- 
turned to  be  first  in  projection,  and  the  theatres,  of  course, 
encouraged  the  enterprise.  Consequently  the  race  against 
time  and  rivals  became  more  and  more  bitterly  contested. 


n8  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

As  a  natural  result,  great  improvements  were  made  in  the 
developing,  drying,  and  printing  operations.  Whereas 
twenty-four  hours  or  so  had  been  required  to  produce  a 
positive  ready  for  use,  it  now  became  possible  to  reduce  the 
time  of  preparation  to  about  eight  hours.  To-day  a  subject 
can  be  thrown  upon  the  screen  four  hours  after  it  has 
occurred.  The  topical  film  appears  while  the  subject 
to  which  it  refers  is  still  absorbing  public  interest ;  and 
accordingly  meets  with  overwhelming  success.  The  men 
armed  with  the  camera  have  the  same  zeal  that  animates 
the  reporter  bent  on  securing  exclusive  information  for  his 
paper.  No  effort  or  expense  is  spared  to  outstrip  a  rival, 
as  the  following  incident  showys. 

An  American  firm  required  a  film  of  an  event  which  it 
thought  would  be  of  absorbing  interest  to  the  American 
public.  It  communicated  with  its  agents  in  London  to 
"get  it,  and  ahead  of  anyone  else."  The  outlay  was  such 
that  the  firm  could  only  hope  to  recoup  itself  by  capturing 
the  entire  market  for  that  particular  firm.  As  it  happened, 
only  one  other  firm  decided  to  exploit  the  same  topical  sub- 
ject in  the  United  States.  The  first  firm  secured  command- 
ing positions  for  its  camera  operators,  and  the  films  as  they 
arrived  were  packed  and  dispatched  to  New  York  by  special 
messenger.  The  competitors  failed  to  show  such  initiative, 
and  had  their  films  transmitted  in  the  usual  manner.  Not 
only  did  the  first  firm  receive  its  negatives  within  the 
shortest  possible  space  of  time,  but  it  found  itself  in 
undisputed  command  of  the  whole  country,  for  the  rival's 
product  went  astray  in  transit  !  The  successful  establish- 
ment expended  ^300  ($1,500)  in  acquiring  the  negatives, 
but  it  proved  an  excellent  investment. 

The  Americans,  however,  have  not  made  such  a  speciality 
of  the  topical  film  as  it  has  become  in  England,  where 
there  are  several  firms  excelling  in  this  particular  field  of 
activity.  Under  energetic  management  it  is  one  of  the 
most  lucrative  branches  of  the  industry,  success  attending 
those  who  display  the  greatest  amount  of  energy  and 
initiative. 

The  power  of  the  topical  picture  was  demonstrated  most 


'■A     . 


5fek 


THE    FIRST   TOl'ICAl     l-'ll.M. 

I  ;"     Derby  of   1S96  cinematographed  by   Robert   W.   Paul,  and   shown   i\m  day  after  the  event  at 
the  Alhambra  Theatv,  London.     Seepagei\6. 


\By  permission  o)  the  British  and Colonial Kinematografh  Co.,  Ltii. 

THE  FALL  FROM  THE  BALI.<  ION. 

Sensationalism  is  a  powerful  feature  in  the  modern  cinematograph  drama.     The  above  incident 
alone  cost  .£300  (§1,500)  to  obtain. 


xi  RECORDER  OF   TOPICAL   EVENTS  119 

convincingly  by  the  Coronation  festivities  of  King 
George  V.  For  some  weeks  after  that  event  the  picture 
play  fell  into  second  position.  The  Coronation  films  were 
in  urgent  demand  on  every  hand,  not  only  in  Great  Britain, 
but  in  the  Colonies  as  well.  Some  theatres  even  found  it 
profitable  to  give  an  extended  run  exclusively  to  Coronation 
films  and  kindred  subjects.  The  most  remarkable  outcome 
of  the  popularity  of  the  Coronation  films  was  the  establish- 
ment of  "Kinemacolor  "  in  the  favour  of  the  public. 
Cinematography  in  natural  colours  had  not  in  the  earlier 
stages  attracted  more  than  passing  interest,  and  had  lan- 
guished somewhat.  But  when  the  royal  festivities  were 
reproduced  in  the  full  glow  and  brilliancy  of  colour,  the 
success  of  this  development  of  the  art  became  assured. 

The  Coronation  has  probably  been  responsible  for  more 
achievements  in  the  work  of  topical  cinematography  than 
any  other  event.  On  all  sides  the  keenest  competition  was 
displayed  among  the  rival  firms.  In  London,  ere  the  Royal 
procession  left  Westminster  Abbey  after  the  crowning  cere- 
mony, films  were  being  shown  of  the  morning  procession 
to  the  Abbey;  and  before  the  crowds  in  the  evening  were 
gazing  upon  the  illuminated  streets,  the  return  journey  to 
Buckingham  Palace  was  being  thrown  upon  the  screen  of 
a  multitude  of  theatres  throughout  the  country.  Possibly 
the  most  remarkable  feat  was  that  whereby  English  resi- 
dents in  Paris  and  the  French  nation  were  enabled  to  see 
the  ceremony  within  a  few  hours  of  its  occurrence.  This 
was  an  achievement  of  the  English  branch  of  the  well- 
known  Gaumont  Company,  which  is  probably  unexcelled  in 
time-saving  ingenuity. 

This  firm  had  cameras  and  operators  scattered  freely 
along  the  route  of  the  Royal  procession,  and  all  the  films 
which  were  secured  up  to  the  time  of  the  arrival  at  West- 
minster Abbey  had  been  packed  and  entrusted  to  a  special 
messenger.  The  train  was  due  to  leave  Charing  Cross  at 
2.20  p.m.  The  clock  had  barely  struck  two  when  the 
return  journey  commenced  to  Buckingham  Palace.  The 
operator  stationed  near  the  Abbey,  in  a  position  to  secure 
one  of  the  best  views  along  the  route,  was  suddenly  seized 


120  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

with  the  idea  to  set  up  a  new  record.  A  taxi-cab  was 
engaged  and  held  in  readiness.  At  about  ten  minutes  past 
the  hour  the  procession  drew  within  the  field  of  the  camera 
and  the  filming  commenced.  Within  about  four  minutes  the 
coach  bearing  their  Majesties  had  passed  beyond  the  lens. 
The  film  was  slipped  out  of  the  camera,  and  the  second 
operator,  snatching  it  up,  entered  the  cab  and  drove  off 
at  full  speed  to  the  station.  The  train  was  caught  in  the 
nick  of  time,  the  film  was  handed  over  to  the  special  mes- 
senger, and  before  the  whole  procession  had  left  the  pre- 
cincts of  Westminster  Abbey,  the  film  bearing  the  passing 
of  the  crowned  King  and  Queen  was  bound  for  the  French 
capital,  where  the  pictures  were  thrown  upon  the  screen 
late  that  night. 

On  the  occasion  of  the  investiture  of  the  Prince  of  Wales 
at  Carnarvon  an  even  more  astonishing  performance  was 
accomplished  by  the  same  firm.  A  London  manager, 
Mr.  Laurrilard,  of  the  Marble  Arch  Electric  Theatre,  desired 
to  show  the  ceremonies  on  the  evening  of  the  day  they  took 
place,  if  that  were  humanly  possible.  He  approached  the 
Gaumont  Company,  which  decided  to  make  the  attempt. 
A  great  difficulty  was  sure  to  be  encountered  in  dispatching 
the  film,  on  account  of  the  enormous  crowds  and  the  strict- 
ness of  the  traffic  regulations;  moreover,  it  was  plain  that 
in  order  to  project  the  film  in  London  the  same  evening 
it  would  have  to  be  developed  and  prepared  on  the  train. 
With  the  greatest  difficulty,  owing  to  the  abnormally  heavy 
traffic  and  arrangements  already  made  for  a  large  number 
of  extra  trains,  the  Gaumont  firm  succeeded  in  chartering 
a  special  train  on  the  London  and  North-Western  Railway. 
The  railway  company  stipulated  that  the  train  must  leave 
Bangor  at  exactly  the  time  designated  by  them,  in  order 
not  to  interfere  with  the  departure  of  trains  after  the 
ceremony  was  over. 

Two  brake  vans  (each  measuring  50  feet  in  length)  were 
coupled  up  and  converted  into  temporary  dark-rooms. 
They  were  fitted  with  tanks  for  developing,  fixing,  and 
washing,  together  with  a  printing  machine  and  a  large 
drum   upon  which  the   films  could  be  dried   quickly.     A 


xi  RECORDER   OF   TOPICAL   EVENTS  121 

great  difficulty  was  an  adequate  supply  of  water  for  washing 
the  films,  75  gallons  at  least  being  required  for  the  purpose. 
Another  quandary  was  the  impossibility  of  obtaining  elec- 
tric current  to  use  with  the  printing  machine  ;  special  lamps 
had  finally  to  be  acquired  to  enable  this  task  to  be  carried 
out.  By  the  time  the  arrangements  were  completed  over 
a  ton  of  apparatus  had  been  erected  within  the  two  vehicles. 

This  train  was  kept  under  steam  at  Bangor  ready  to  start 
at  the  pre-arranged  minute.  The  distance  between  Bangor 
and  Carnarvon  had  to  be  covered  by  motor-cars  chartered 
from  Chester,  94  miles  distant.  The  police  arrangements 
would  not  permit  these  vehicles  to  approach  within  one- 
and-a-half  miles  of  the  castle,  and  the  latter  stretch  had  to 
be  covered  on  foot. 

The  whole  ceremony  was  recorded  by  operators  posted 
at  convenient  points,  each  of  whom  had  to  carry  his  film- 
box  at  top  speed  to  the  waiting  motor.  All  worked  smoothly. 
There  was  some  fear  lest  the  final  scene  in  the  ceremony 
would  have  to  be  omitted,  but  by  keen  judgment  and  quick 
work  the  last  operator  secured  his  film  and  left  the  scene, 
the  ceremony  concluding  at  4  p.m.  The  schedule  had  been 
drawn  up  so  accurately  that  a  little  delay  at  any  one  point 
would  have  thrown  the  whole  arrangements  to  the  four 
winds. 

However,  the  train  was  caught  and  punctually  to  the 
minute  the  special  drew  out.  In  addition  to  the  cinemato- 
graph dark-room  on  wheels  a  third  dark-room,  similarly 
improvised  from  a  baggage  car,  was  attached  for  the  Daily 
Graphic,  in  order  to  enable  this  paper's  photographic  corre- 
spondents to  develop  their  plates  ready  for  the  preparation 
of  the  process  blocks  for  the  next  day's  issue.  The  com- 
plete character  of  the  arrangements  enabled  the  developing 
of  the  films  to  proceed  without  a  hitch,  despite  the  fact 
that  the  train  was  making  a  steady  sixty  miles  an  hour. 
Within  two  hours  the  negatives  had  been  developed, 
washed,  and  were  being  dried  upon  a  huge  drum.  Printing 
was  taken  in  hand,  and  a  single  positive  was  hurried 
through  its  processes.  The  parts  were  connected  together 
in   proper  sequence,  and  the  various   titles  and  subtitles, 


122  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

prepared  in  both  English  and  Welsh,  were  duly  inserted. 
By  the  time  the  train  reached  Willesden  the  film  was  com- 
pleted and  wound  up  ready  for  slipping  into  the  projector. 
Arriving  at  Euston  seven  minutes  late,  the  film  was  received 
by  a  waiting  motor-car;  and  at  10.15  a  large  audience 
followed  for  some  twelve  minutes  a  ceremony  which  had 
been  performed  six  hours  before  over  200  miles  away.  The 
film  was  750  feet  in  length.  As  it  was  the  only  moving 
picture  record  of  the  Investiture  of  the  Prince  of  Wales 
seen  in  London  that  night,  as  may  be  supposed  it  created 
no  slight  sensation.  By  working  all  night  the  firm  made 
over  100  copies  of  the  subject,  varying  from  500  to  1,000 
feet  in  length,  and  by  seven  o'clock  had  dispatched  them 
to  all  parts  of  the  country.  Copies  were  hurried  to  the 
Continent,  and  were  seen  in  the  French  capital  several 
hours  ahead  of  any  rival. 

A  prize-fight  between  two  famous  champions  provokes 
extraordinary  energy  on  the  part  of  the  cinematographic 
artists.  Fabulous  prices  are  paid  for  exclusive  rights  to 
photograph  the  contest,  and  no  expense  is  spared  to  secure 
a  continuous  record.  In  order  to  obtain  adequate  illumina- 
tion of  the  ring,  a  battery  of  powerful  electric  lamps  has 
to  be  set  up,  and  the  glare  of  tens  of  thousands  of  candle- 
power  concentrated  upon  the  combatants.  If  the  battle  is 
short  and  sharp  the  results  are  disappointing  both  to  the 
cinematographer  and  his  public,  but  if  it  be  long,  requiring 
several  hundred  feet  of  film,  he  is  happy.  The  prize-fight 
film,  however,  is  meeting  with  considerable  opposition, 
which  should  be  welcomed  as  a  healthy  sign  even  by  the 
film-producers  themselves.  The  cinematograph  can  surely 
do  more  elevating,  profitable  and  entertaining  work  than 
the  recording  of  a  prize-fight.  Furthermore,  the  result  has 
not  always  paid  the  speculators  concerned,  and  one  or  two 
more  heavy  losses  in  the  field,  combined  with  popular 
censorship,  will  result  in  the  prize-fight  being  eliminated 
entirely  from  the  category  of  "topical"  films. 

At  the  present  moment  the  largest  film-producing  estab- 
lishments refrain  from  practising  in  the  "topical"  world, 
as    the    special  requirements    necessary   to    get  the   films 


xi  RECORDER  OF   TOPICAL   EVENTS  123 

quickly  upon  the  market  upsets  the  arrangements  of  a 
well-organised  factory,  where  the  day's  work  must  be  very 
carefully  scheduled.  When  a  topical  subject  is  under  con- 
templation, it  must  be  decided  whether  the  financial  results 
will  compensate  for  the  losses  arising  from  the  disorganisa- 
tion of  the  film  factory.  This  point  of  view  is  responsible 
for  the  apathetic  American  attitude  towards  the  "topical," 
as  it  is  called  in  Great  Britain. 

Topical  work,  however,  not  only  possesses  its  fascina- 
tions, but  is  beset  with  considerable  danger  at  times.  A 
calamity  of  such  dimensions  as  to  send  a  deep  thrill  around 
the  world  is  a  powerful  topical  subject,  and  in  their  haste 
to  secure  striking  films,  the  operators  occasionally  run 
extreme  risks.  The  Messina  earthquake  was  a  striking  case 
in  point.  The  first  authoritative  news  of  that  catastrophe 
precipitated  the  rush  of  a  small  army  of  operators  and 
cameras  to  the  spot.  Scarcely  had  the  earth  ceased  its 
mighty  devastating  shivers  when  the  cinematographer  was 
among  the  tottering  ruins  securing  records  of  the  disaster. 
Now  and  again  there  was  a  rush  to  a  point  of  safety  to 
escape  a  collapsing  wall.  Sometimes  the  flight  was  so 
hurried  that  the  operator  had  to  abandon  his  camera,  and 
saw  it  buried  beneath  thousands  of  tons  of  debris.  Occa- 
sionally the  operator  himself  was  too  slow  and  was  over- 
whelmed while  pursuing  his  dangerous  work. 

It  is  always  possible  for  the  film  producer  to  realise  large 
profits  on  a  great  national  disaster  of  this  kind,  provided  he 
displays  the  requisite  energy  and  initiative.  Colliery 
accidents,  conflagrations,  railway  collisions,  are  all  sources 
of  income  to  him.  He  has  often  to  contend  with  innumer- 
able adverse  factors — the  weather  may  be  bad,  or  the 
lighting  conditions  unadapted  to  this  work;  but  the  film 
must  be  obtained  by  some  means  or  other.  The  public 
sometimes  find  fault  with  the  quality  of  such  pictures,  ex- 
pecting the  brilliance  and  perfect  definition  incidental  to 
the  average  picture  play,  and  ignoring  the  fact  that  the 
film  may  have  been  exposed  upon  a  dreary,  wintry  day 
in  the  pelting  rain,  or  when  the  scene  was  enveloped  in  a 
blanket  of  fog. 


i24  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

Now  and  again  a  stirring  item  of  news  enables  striking 
success  to  be  achieved.  During  the  battle  with  the 
anarchists  in  the  East  End  of  London,  an  enterprising  firm 
dispatched  its  operators  and  assistants  to  the  scene  without 
loss  of  time.  In  the  course  of  an  hour  a  short  length  of 
film  arrived  at  the  factory,  which,  upon  development,  was 
found  to  be  capable  of  producing  a  sensation  of  the  first 
rank.  Instantly  telegrams  with  replies  prepaid  were  dis- 
patched to  all  customers  throughout  the  kingdom  an- 
nouncing that  a  film  had  been  secured.  Of  course,  the 
event  constituted  at  the  time  the  sole  topic  of  conversation 
in  every  walk  of  life.  The  films  were  brought  in  as  fast 
as  possible ;  and  by  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  eighty 
copies  thereof  had  been  dispatched  to  all  parts  of  the 
British  Isles;  in  several  instances  being  shown  on  the 
screen  that  evening  whilst  the  newsboys  outside  the  theatres 
were  shouting  out  the  latest  details  concerning  the  episode. 

The  topical  film  is  a  favourite  in  the  British  Colonies,  for 
it  enables  audiences  in  the  most  remote  parts  of  Greater 
Britain  to  become  more  vividly  familiar  with  incidents  and 
events  in  the  Home  Country  than  they  could  in  any  other 
way.  The  Derby  may  be  run  in  the  Antipodes  six  weeks  after 
the  horses  have  sped  over  the  course  at  Epsom  ;  a  prominent 
Royal  function  may  have  slipped  from  memory,  but  the 
film  revives  it  in  all  its  freshness.  When  the  film  shows 
such  subjects  as  the  funeral  of  King  Edward  VII.,  the 
unveiling  of  the  Queen  Victoria  Memorial,  or  the  Corona- 
tion of  King  George  V.,  the  sale  of  the  films  in  the  Colonies 
aggregates  several  thousand  feet  per  subject. 

To  be  successful  in  the  production  of  topical  films  one 
must  have  not  only  an  extensive  and  well-equipped  organi- 
sation, but  also  facilities  for  working  at  high  pressure.  The 
business,  moreover,  is  speculative  to  a  degree ;  for  the 
average  topical  film  is  little  more  than  a  six  days'  wonder — 
many  of  them  are  less — and  the  manufacturer  can  make  a 
profit  only  by  flooding  the  market  within  an  hour  or  two  of 
the  occurrence  of  the  incident.  Every  hour  means  money, 
and  every  day  depreciates  the  value  of  the  film  from  the 
showman's  point  of  view. 


xi  RECORDER   OF  TOPICAL   EVENTS  125 

Some  of  the  firms  concerned  in  the  work  of  topical  film 
production,  however,  are  jeopardising  its  future  by  doing 
work  of  very  indifferent  quality.  This  is  partly  due  to 
heavy  cutting  in  prices.  It  is  possible  to  purchase  topical 
films  for  fifty  per  cent,  less  than  the  price  charged  per  foot 
for  film  plays ;  at  which  figure  the  margin  of  profit  is  slight 
and  quality  must  suffer.  The  public  is  displaying  its  dis- 
approval of  these  tactics,  and  unless  a  radical  improvement 
comes,  the  topical  film  will  be  ousted  from  the  picture 
palace  by  force  of  popular  opinion.  Indifferent  workman- 
ship certainly  does  not  assist  those  who  are  endeavouring 
to  lift  this  form  of  entertainment  to  its  highest  level. 

If  the  topical  film  brings  a  glimpse  of  the  great  world 
into  remote  and  unsettled  corners  of  the  earth,  the  scenic 
film,  on  the  other  hand,  does  a  like  service  for  the  dweller 
in  cities;  it  brings  sweeping  panoramas  of  nature,  mag- 
nificent and  unfamiliar  landscapes  before  his  eyes.  He  has 
the  joys  of  travel  without  stirring  from  his  comfortable 
chair  in  the  cinematograph  theatre  !  In  fact,  the  best  scenic 
film  is  that  taken  from  the  front  of  a  railway  locomotive, 
with  the  camera  and  operator  mounted  upon  the  cow- 
catcher or  its  equivalent.  In  this  instance  the  illusion  is 
conveyed  that  the  audience  are  seated  in  the  moving  train  ; 
the  panorama  is  unfolded  on  all  sides,  and  there  are  the 
gleaming  metals  and  the  flitting  in  and  out  of  tunnels  to 
assist  in  the  illusion  of  actually  travelling.  The  railway 
scenic  film  has  been  modified  recently  to  conspicuous  ad- 
vantage. Instead  of  taking  the  picture  from  the  front  or 
rear  of  the  train,  the  practice  of  taking  the  film  from  the 
carriage  windows  has  been  introduced  with  strikingly  con- 
vincing effects.  The  camera  is  mounted  near  the  rear  of 
the  train  with  the  lens  pointing  towards  the  engine.  The 
result  is  that  when  the  train  swings  round  a  sharp  curve 
a  glimpse  of  the  leading  carriages  is  caught,  giving  a  highly 
realistic  result. 

When  the  Urban  Trading  Company  sought  to  record 
some  of  the  natural  marvels  of  the  Tyrol  in  order  to  bring 
them  before  large  audiences  in  distant  theatres,  valuable 
assistance  was  extended  by  the  Imperial  Austrian  Railway 


126  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

Ministry,  which  placed  a  special  engine  and  carriage  at 
the  disposal  of  the  cinematographer,  so  that  he  might  be 
enabled  to  obtain  his  pictures  under  the  best  and  most 
advantageous  conditions.  Similarly  when  Kinemacolor 
set  out  to  harness  the  gorgeous  beauties  of  Nature  among 
the  Rocky  Mountains  of  British  North  America,  the 
Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  which  co-operated  in  the  enter- 
prise, provided  a  special  engine  attached  to  a  dark-room 
on  wheels.  This  "Kinemacolor  special"  moved  at  leisure 
among  the  snow-clad  giants,  and  some  very  impressive 
and  beautiful  pictures  were  obtained  to  delight  vast 
concourses. 

The  cinematographer  of  to-day  acts  in  the  capacity  of 
an  explorer.  At  great  risk  he  ventures  into  unknown  or 
forbidden  territories,  and  brings  back  scenes  of  wonderful 
interest,  though  in  many  instances  he  has  to  resort  to  novel 
subterfuge  to  secure  his  results.  For  instance,  when  some 
films  of  the  country,  habits  and  customs  of  the  peoples  of 
inland  China  were  desired,  it  was  considered  too  dangerous 
to  entrust  a  white  man  with  the  work.  Instead,  an  intelli- 
gent and  highly  cultured  Chinaman  was  obtained.  Months 
were  devoted  to  initiating  him  into  the  mysteries  of  the 
camera,  and  when  at  last  he  obtained  proficiency  he  sallied 
out  upon  his  perilous  mission. 

Equally  daring  was  the  expedition  of  the  Urban  Trading 
Company  into  Central  Africa.  The  cinematographer  fol- 
lowed the  route  of  the  Cape  to  Cairo  Railway  so  far  as 
practicable,  securing  magnificent  film  records  as  he  pro- 
ceeded along  the  line,  and  then  pushed  on  into  the  interior. 
When  the  railway  was  left  a  number  of  native  porters  had 
to  be  pressed  into  service  to  fulfil  the  work  of  the  iron 
horse,  the  members  of  this  human  pack-train  bearing  the 
camera  and  its  innumerable  accessories,  together  with  the 
impedimenta  of  the  operator,  upon  their  heads. 

The  Victoria  Falls  upon  the  Zambesi  River  have  proved 
a  happy  hunting  ground  for  the  cinematographer,  and  this 
enormous  tumble  of  water  promises  to  rival  the  famous 
Falls  of  Niagara  as  a  cinematographic  centre  of  attraction. 


xi  RECORDER  OF  TOPICAL   EVENTS  127 

Since  the  bridge  has  been  thrown  across  the  gorge  ex- 
cellent coigns  of  vantage  have  been  provided  to  secure 
impressively  beautiful  films  of  this  cataract.  One  of  the 
most  powerful  pictures  of  this  wonder  of  Nature,  however, 
was  a  close  view  of  the  Boiling  Pot,  and  the  recording  of 
the  seething  water  bubbling  and  frothing  provided  a  unique 
and  thrilling  experience  for  the  operator.  There  was  only 
one  means  by  which  a  close  view  of  this  awful  spectacle 
could  be  secured — that  was  to  lower  the  operator  and  camera 
by  ropes  from  the  bridge  overhead  to  within  a  few  feet 
of  the  raging  waters.  The  ropes  were  snubbed  round 
friendly  posts  and  the  operator  with  his  camera  was  lowered 
over  the  side  for  a  distance  of  about  400  feet,  being  steadied 
as  much  as  possible  while  in  that  unenviable  position  by 
his  comrades  on  the  bridge  above.  It  was  an  eerie  sensa- 
tion dangling  in  mid-air,  and  the  cinematographer,  after 
swirling  round  at  the  end  of  the  ropes,  like  a  joint  on  a 
roasting-jack,  gave  a  breath  of  relief  when  he  was  hauled 
up  and  felt  his  feet  touching  the  roadway  of  the  railway 
bridge  once  more. 

Possibly  the  greatest  triumph  of  scenic  cinematography 
is  the  convincing  manner  in  which  the  sensitised  celluloid 
band  brings  before  the  teeming  thousands  of  the  crowded 
cities  of  civilisation  the  terrible  difficulties  confronting 
polar  exploration.  The  still-life  studies  of  the  interminable 
wastes  of  snow  and  ice  which  were  brought  back  by  Nansen, 
Jackson,  Sverdrup,  Captain  Scott,  and  other  intrepid  spirits 
who  ventured  into  the  silent,  cold  strongholds  around  the 
poles,  were  indelibly  powerful,  but  they  failed  to  convince 
the  man  in  the  street  of  the  bitter  hostility  of  those  icy 
climes  in  such  a  vivid  manner  as  those  produced  in  move- 
ment upon  the  screen,  which  were  taken  for  the  first 
time  during  the  Shackleton  expedition.  This  daring  ex- 
plorer indicated  a  new  opportunity  for  motion  photography, 
and  since  that  expedition  no  other  party  has  ventured  into 
those  forbidding  wastes  without  a  cinematograph  and  a  few 
thousand  feet  of  film.  Captain  Scott  has  a  complete 
cinematographic   equipment,    and    his   films  initiated    the 


128  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

masses  into  the  inconceivable  difficulties,  privations,  and 
peculiar  existence  of  the  small  communities  determined  to 
penetrate  Farthest  South. 

Similarly,  the  Duke  of  the  Abruzzi  brought  before  one 
and  all  the  topmost  heights  of  the  Himalayas.  The  Roof  of 
the  World  has  been  wrapped  in  much  legend,  and  has  been 
the  scene  of  many  remarkable  mountaineering  exploits,  but 
the  task  of  scaling  those  dizzy  peaks  has  never  been  con- 
veyed so  realistically  to  the  man  in  the  armchair  before 
as  by  the  films  that  were  taken  on  this  occasion.  In  a  like 
manner  another  daring  explorer  has  penetrated  the  inner- 
most recesses  of  New  Guinea,  and  in  the  heart  of  the 
unknown  has  made  several  exposures,  the  value  of  which 
is  not  confined  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  curious.  The  pic- 
tures are  also  of  incalculable  value  to  geographical  and 
ethnographical  science,  as  we  see  how  these  unknown 
natives  move,  live,  and  have  their  being,  just  as  vividly  as 
if  we  were  transported  to  the  spot  by  a  magic  carpet,  and 
viewed  the  sights  with  our  own  eyes,  while  we  become 
acquainted  with  the  physical  characteristics  of  the  country. 
Theodore  Roosevelt  also  brought  back  striking  films  of  life 
in  the  lesser-known  recesses  of  the  African  jungle.  It  is 
stated  that  the  cinematographic  records  of  his  journey  cost 
no  less  than  ^"2,000  ($10,000),  which  affords  an  insight 
into  the  expense  incurred  to  bring  the  uttermost  parts  of 
the  earth  to  the  city  dweller. 

Nowadays  an  explorer  may  reap  appreciable  financial 
benefit  by  the  display  of  a  little  forethought.  The  manipu- 
lation of  the  moving  picture  camera  does  not  demand  a 
long  course  of  tutelage  to  enable  pictures  to  be  taken. 
Accordingly,  whereas  formerly  the  hand  camera  constituted 
a  prominent  part  of  the  impedimenta,  the  cinematograph 
now  occupies  the  pre-eminent  place.  The  films  obtained 
command  a  distinct  value,  which  fluctuates  according  to 
the  popular  interest  created  in  the  particular  exploration 
achievement  to  which  they  refer.  Any  film  manufacturing 
firm  will  undertake  readily  to  place  the  subjects  upon  the 
market  under  a  handsome  royalty.  The  Gaumont  firm 
has  displayed  considerable  initiative  in  this  direction;  for 


xi  RECORDER   OF   TOPICAL   EVENTS  129 

it  introduced  the  films  of  Shackleton's  famous  Antarctic 
expedition  to  the  masses,  and  has  recently  acquired  the 
films  of  Captain  Scott  relative  to  his  Antarctic  expedition, 
and  also  those  of  the  daring  journey  into  the  innermost 
parts  of  New  Guinea. 


K 


CHAPTER    XII 

THE   CINEMATOGRAPH    THEATRE    AND    ITS   EQUIPMENT 

When  moving  pictures  made  their  first  claim  on  popular 
interest,  they  did  so  in  the  form  of  an  item  to  the  pro- 
gramme of  the  ordinary  music-hall  or  vaudeville  theatre. 
In  the  front  rank  of  this  movement  was  T.  J.  West;  in 
fact,  he  might  be  considered  the  pioneer  of  the  travelling 
cinematograph  show.  He  had  seen  the  popularity  of  the 
cinematograph  feature  on  the  programme  of  Professor 
Treuwe,  the  French  prestidigitateur,  during  his  appearance 
at  the  Regent  Street  Polytechnic.  The  conjurer  used  a 
Lumiere  apparatus  and  operated  it  himself.  When  his 
engagement  was  concluded,  West  decided  that  the  Poly- 
technic ought  not  to  lose  one  of  its  greatest  attractions; 
accordingly  he  offered  a  complete  entertainment  in  motion 
photography.  From  this  small  beginning  has  grown  up 
one  of  the  largest  individual  cinematographic  exhibition 
businesses  in  the  world.  West  realised  the  possibilities 
of  the  craft,  and  with  commendable  enterprise  organised 
a  touring  show,  with  which  he  travelled  not  only  through 
the  towns  and  cities  of  the  British  Isles,  but  even  in  the 
remote  colonies.  To-day  he  has  no  less  than  twenty  per- 
manent establishments  devoted  to  the  projection  of  moving 
pictures  scattered  throughout  the  British  Empire,  provid- 
ing employment  for  over  600  people. 

The  touring  cinematograph  proved  conclusively  the 
popularity  of  entertainments  devoted  exclusively  to 
animated  pictures.  Permanent  exhibitions  were  then  tried, 
at  first  in  a  somewhat  unpretentious  way.  Empty  shops 
in  prominent  thoroughfares,  which  could   be  rented  at  a 


ch.  xii      THEATRE   AND    ITS   EQUIPMENT  131 

low  price,  railway  arches,  and  so  forth  were  acquired,  and 
converted  at  small  expense  into  dark  halls.  A  screen  and 
apparatus  were  purchased ;  the  seating  accommodation 
comprised  hard  wooden  seats  similar  to  school  forms. 
The  show  was  continuous  :  it  commenced  about  mid-day 
and  continued  without  intermission  for  ten  or  twelve 
hours,  sufficient  pictures  being  secured  to  provide  amuse- 
ment for  about  one  hour,  and  repeated  throughout  the  day. 
The  prices  of  admission  were  very  low,  averaging  about 
one  penny,  or  two  cents ;  and  as  the  expenses  were  trifling, 
it  did  not  require  very  extensive  patronage  to  ensure  a 
substantial  weekly  profit  upon  the  investment. 

In  the  United  States  the  same  practice  was  adopted. 
The  first  steps  there  were  taken  just  as  warily  as  in  Great 
Britain ;  empty  buildings  were  hired  at  a  low  price  and 
turned  into  temporary  "store"  theatres,  as  they  were 
called.  If  the  enterprise  proved  unsuccessful,  the  ener- 
getic showman  simply  closed  down,  vacated  the  building, 
and  tried  his  fortune  in  a  more  promising  situation.  This 
practice  is  still  followed  extensively  throughout  North 
America  and  Canada,  and  the  initiative  of  the  showman 
knows  no  limits.  He  seeks  to  instal  himself  in  a  small 
community  where  there  is  no  competition.  The  experi- 
ment invariably  proves  successful  from  the  financial  point 
of  view,  because  in  the  outlying  townships  the  cinemato- 
graph hall  constitutes  the  sole  centre  of  amusement  for 
miles  around.  If  there  is  no  available  empty  building,  the 
showman  constructs  a  cheap  wooden  theatre.  Often  the 
frontier  moving  picture  palace  is  only  a  shack  built  of 
logs,  capable  of  seating  100  people  or  so,  the  price  of 
admission  ranging  between  five  and  ten  cents — 2\&.  to  $d. 
The  cinematographic  entertainment  in  North  America  is 
known  colloquially  as  a  "nickel"  or  "dime"  show,  from 
the  prices  charged  for  admission.  In  Great  Britain  it 
became  known  in  the  early  days  as  a  "penny  gaff,"  which 
contemptuous  colloquialism  still  remains  in  use,  though 
the  price  has  gone  up. 

I  have  seen  some  very  amusing  and  interesting  mani- 
festations of  the  showman's  energy  in  remote  districts  of 

1;  2 


1 32  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

America.  When  I  visited  Cochrane,  a  town  which  has 
sprung  up  in  the  wilderness  of  Ontario  within  175  miles  of 
the  shores  of  Hudson  Bay,  the  picture  showman  had 
planted  himself  firmly  in  its  midst.  There  was  only  one 
masonry  building  in  the  place,  the  majority  of  the  300 
inhabitants  living  in  wooden  shacks  or  tents,  because  the 
town  was  in  the  formative  stage.  The  showman  had  come 
up  with  the  first  settlers,  cannily  foreseeing  that  a  little 
colony  150  miles  from  the  nearest  town  would  need  some 
form  of  diversion  to  while  away  the  long  evenings.  He 
acquired  a  site  upon  one  of  the  main  streets,  and  ran  up 
a  cheap  wooden  building  with  an  attractive  arched  front, 
gaily  bedecked  with  small  red,  white,  and  blue  lamps. 
There  was  not  a  unit  of  electricity  or  a  cubic  foot  of  gas 
generated  in  the  place,  but  the  indefatigable  showman 
overcame  these  difficulties  by  recourse  to  substitutes.  The 
theatre  was  thronged  the  whole  evening,  a  result  due  in  a 
great  measure  to  the  fact  that  Cochrane  was  situate  in  the 
Prohibition  Area,  and  the  theatre  consequently  had  not  to 
compete  with  the  lures  of  the  liquor  saloon.  The  ranks  of 
the  inhabitants  were  swelled  every  day  by  gangs  of  work- 
men passing  to  and  from  the  great  railway  construction 
camps,  and  the  theatre  was  a  distinct  success  and  source 
of  profit  to  the  enterprising  operator. 

I  encountered  another  quaint  outburst  of  initiative  at  a 
far  more  inaccessible  spot — the  town  of  Hazelton  around 
the  Hudson  Bay  post  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the 
Skeena  River,  in  British  Columbia.  Prince  Rupert,  186 
miles  away,  was  the  nearest  town,  and  that  port  is  550  miles 
from  Vancouver.  A  cinematograph  showman  arrived  in 
Hazelton,  which  at  that  time  boasted  a  handful  of  white 
men,  and  several  Indians.  The  operator  took  over  an 
excavation  in  the  side  of  the  hill  overlooking  the  town, 
which  had  been  made  for  storing  various  goods,  but  which 
at  that  time  was  empty.  In  this  cramped,  unventilated 
cellar  he  rigged  his  screen  and  lantern.  On  the  wooden 
door  he  nailed  a  large  sheet  of  paper,  on  which  was 
scrawled  the  name  of  the  "Theatre"  and  the  programme 
of  films  "now  being  shown." 


xii  THEATRE   AND    ITS  EQUIPMENT  133 

The  preparations  demanded  only  a  few  hours.  Boxes, 
barrels,  and  logs  sufficed  for  seats,  while  a  good  many 
patrons  sat  or  sprawled  upon  the  earthen  floor.  The  little 
vault  was  packed  to  suffocation  on  the  opening  night.  The 
Indians  were  amazed  and  the  whites  were  amused,  though 
the  films  would  not  have  been  tolerated  in  London  or  New 
York,  having  long  since  passed  their  span  of  usefulness. 
The  show  was  kept  going  day  after  day  until  the  audience 
became  too  small  to  defray  the  cost  of  the  illuminant,  when 
the  "theatre"  was  closed,  and  the  showman  haunted  the 
verandah  of  the  hotel  until  he  received  some  new  subjects. 
His  supply  of  films  was  both  uncertain  and  irregular.  He 
had  to  order  them  by  post  from  Vancouver,  whence  they 
were  brought  up  by  boat.  If  the  fates  were  kind  he 
received  an  entire  change  of  programme  in  about  a  fort- 
night ;  if  the  river  were  difficult  to  navigate,  a  month  passed 
before  they  reached  him,  and  often  the  boat  came  up 
without  his  goods,  owing  to  lack  of  space.  Probably  no 
showman  ever  offered  to  amuse  the  public  under  more 
difficult  conditions.  It  was  doubtful  if  he  would  secure 
any  films  at  all  during  the  winter,  as,  the  river  being 
frozen,  communication  between  Hazelton  and  Prince 
Rupert  had  to  be  maintained  by  dog  trains,  whieh  carried 
letter-mail  only. 

In  comparison  with  the  luxurious  conditions  under  which 
the  triumphs  of  the  art  may  be  seen  in  London,  New  York, 
or  Paris,  the  "Hazelton  Picture  Palace"  was  a  half- 
pathetic,  half-laughable  spectacle — a  strange  link  between 
civilisation  and  the  aboriginal.  I  saw  it  after  being 
immured  for  several  weeks  in  the  primeval  bush ;  and 
though  the  pictures  in  the  cellar  danced  and  flickered  on 
the  screen,  they  seemed  to  me  like  a  welcome  handshake 
with  the  great  world. 

About  four  years  ago  the  cinematograph  theatre  under- 
went a  fresh  change.  The  success  of  the  "halls"  extem- 
porised from  empty  shops  and  railway  arches  induced  a 
movement  in  favour  of  a  theatre  especially  designed  for 
the  projection  of  moving  pictures.  Companies  sprang  up 
on  all  sides.     At  first  empty  buildings  of  all  descriptions, 


1 34  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

disused  slaughter  houses,  empty  factories,  roller-skating 
rinks,  chapels  without  congregations,  were  taken  over. 
Landlords  who  had  despaired  of  ever  receiving  an  income 
again  from  their  vacant  property  reaped  a  golden  harvest. 
In  the  first  enthusiasm  little  discrimination  was  displayed 
in  the  acquisition  of  premises.  The  interiors,  having  been 
cleared  down  to  the  bare  walls  and  ceiling,  were  re- 
decorated, and  provided  with  comfortable  theatre  seats. 

The  converted  building  was  not  entirely  successful. 
Moreover,  the  cinematograph  theatre  needed  established 
houses  in  order  to  compete  with  the  vaudeville  and  legi- 
timate theatres.  Managers  became  more  and  more 
ambitious;  and  to-day  rivalry  is  being  displayed  between 
competitive  interests  to  eclipse  one  another  in  the  elaborate 
construction  and  palatial  appointment  of  the  building. 

Great  improvement  was  made  in  the  mechanical  installa- 
tions. Hitherto  they  had  been  more  or  less  haphazard; 
but  expert  electrical  knowledge  naturally  soon  entered  the 
field,  and  the  electrical  engineer  has  found  a  new  oppor- 
tunity for  the  display  of  his  ability.  Every  large  company 
retains  a  highly  competent  electrical  engineer  and  an 
efficient  corps  of  assistants,  and  the  success  of  the  twentieth 
century  picture  palace  is  dependent  to  a  very  great  extent 
upon  electricity. 

Improvement  in  this  particular  field  is  probably  re- 
sponsible for  the  fact  that,  taken  on  the  whole,  the  British 
picture  theatre  is  the  best  in  the  world  from  every  point 
of  view,  as  an  inspection  of  the  theatres  on  the  Continent 
and  in  North  America  will  readily  show. 

The  picture  houses  under  the  control  of  the  Provincial 
Cinematograph  Theatres,  Limited,  offer  a  good  illustration 
of  my  point.  This  company  has  studied  the  tastes  of  the 
British  public  and  has  set  the  pace  in  elaborate  and  com- 
fortable buildings.  The  day  of  the  moving  picture  theatre 
comprising  only  the  box  office  and  the  dark  hall  screened 
off  from  the  street  by  heavy  curtains  is  past;  and  the 
comforts  and  conveniences  of  the  vaudeville  house  and 
the  legitimate  theatre  have  been  incorporated. 

Our  illustration  shows  the  Picture  House  at  Briggate, 


xii  THEATRE   AND   ITS   EQUIPMENT  135 

Leeds,  one  of  the  chain  of  theatres  belonging  to  the  Pro- 
vincial Theatre  Company.  The  building  is  of  fire-proof 
construction,  as  every  moving  picture  theatre  should  be; 
the  decorative  details  have  been  carried  out  upon  a  lavish 
scale,  and  the  seating  arrangements  have  every  device  of 
luxurious  comfort. 

The  projecting  hall  has  accommodation  for  about  600 
people,  and  there  is  a  lounge,  a  tea-room,  and  a  smoking- 
room.  Such  a  liberal  policy  brings  the  picture  theatre  on 
a  level  with  the  vaudeville  house  or  legitimate  theatre. 

British  law  demands  that  the  operating  room  shall  be 
insulated  by  means  of  steel  walls.  In  the  early  days  a 
cupboard-like  box  built  of  iron  met  this  requirement;  but 
nowadays  larger  accommodation  is  necessary,  because  the 
compartment  has  to  house  far  more  than  the  mere  pro- 
jector. When  a  continuous  show  is  given,  and  the  pro- 
gramme lasts  about  an  hour,  the  public  insists  upon  full 
value  for  its  money;  consequently  the  interval  between 
each  film  must  be  reduced  to  the  minimum.  Under 
ordinary  circumstances  \\  minutes  suffice,  not  only  to 
enable  the  film  to  be  changed  easily,  but  to  give  suffi- 
cient time  for  the  audience  to  change. 

The  projecting  apparatus  should  be  in  duplicate,  not 
only  to  provide  a  reserve  apparatus  in  case  of  accident, 
but  to  permit  alternate  use,  so  that  the  lantern  does  not 
become  overheated.  Moreover,  the  advent  of  Kinema- 
color  has  made  the  2-lantern  plan  essential.  In  colour 
work  the  projector  requires  a  special  type  of  shutter  with 
alternate  sectors  of  red  and  green  glass,  or  screens,  with 
intervening  opaque  sectors;  and  thus,  obviously,  when 
black  and  white  alternate  with  colour  pictures  in  the  pro- 
gramme, a  second  projector  is  essential,  to  obviate  the 
necessity  for  repeated  detachment  and  re-attachment  of 
the  Kinemacolor  shutter.  A  third  lantern  is  required  for 
stationary  projections,  such  as  announcements,  titles,  and 
so  forth.  Under  these  conditions  a  commodious  lantern 
room  is  indispensable. 

The  front  of  the  operating  house  is  provided  with  small 
sliding  shutters  through  which  the  pictures  are  projected. 


136  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

If  a  film  should  catch  fire  these  doors,  by  a  single  move- 
ment, close  either  from  within  or  without  the  lantern  room, 
the  fire  is  confined  to  the  lantern  house,  and  the  public 
within  the  theatre  need  receive  no  intimation  of  the  mishap. 
As  the  lantern  house  is  provided  with  an  ample  ventilating 
system,  no  smoke  or  gases  find  their  way  into  the  main 
building. 

In  the  modern  theatre,  however,  the  lantern  room  has  to 
fulfil  other  requirements  beside  merely  housing  the  pro- 
jectors. From  it  control  of  the  various  electrical  arrange- 
ments is  effected.  The  picture  palace  of  to-day,  instead  of 
being  entirely  dark  during  projection,  is  suffused  with 
the  subdued  glow  of  ruby  lamps,  which  do  not  affect 
projection  or  the  brilliancy  of  the  picture  to  any  material 
degree.  Under  the  old  regime  darkness  prevailed  from 
one  end  of  the  programme  to  the  other,  save,  perhaps, 
during  a  short  interval ;  but  now  the  lights  are  turned  up 
throughout  the  hall  while  the  films  are  being  changed. 
The  conversion  from  darkness  to  brilliant  light,  and  vice 
versa,  which  is  so  detrimental  to  -the  eyesight,  is  not, 
however,  carried  out  instantaneously,  but  gradually. 
When  the  end  of  the  film  is  reached  the  hall  is  filled — 
for  about  five  seconds — with  a  soft  diffused  light,  followed 
by  full  illumination ;  darkness  comes  on  in  the  same 
gradual  manner  when  the  next  film  is  ready. 

In  the  modern  picture  palace,  such  as  we  illustrate,  the 
electrical  equipment  is  of  the  most  elaborate  character. 
The  supply  of  current  is  derived,  as  a  rule,  from  the  public 
supply  service,  and  the  pressure  has  to  be  broken  down  to 
meet  the  requirements  of  the  projector  and  of  the  electric 
lighting  arrangements  throughout  the  building.  The 
supply  service  is  generally  in  duplicate  to  guard  against 
the  failure  of  one  installation,  while  should  the  whole 
service  break  down  some  other  form  of  illumination  has  to 
be  in  readiness  for  use  until  the  fault  in  the  electric  system 
is  repaired. 

The  electrical  installation  is  essentially  of  technical  in- 
terest, appealing  mostly  to  the  engineer.  In  many 
instances  the   projector  mechanism   is  driven   by  electric 


xii  THEATRE   AND   ITS   EQUIPMENT  137 

power,  a  small  motor  being  fitted  for  this  purpose.  For 
natural  colour  work,  indeed,  owing  to  the  number  of  pic- 
tures projected  per  second,  a  motor  drive  is  imperative  to 
secure  satisfactory  results. 

After  a  film  has  been  passed  through  the  lantern  it  must 
be  re-wound  upon  another  reel  to  bring  the  first  picture 
into  the  starting  position  once  more.  This  operation  is 
carried  out  with  a  film-winder.  A  large  number  of  these  de- 
vices are  on  the  market,  all  working  upon  the  same  funda- 
mental principle,  but  the  "Empire"  winders  have  achieved 
a  high  reputation,  being  excellent  machines  for  the  work 
and  capable  of  withstanding  hard  wear.     The  operation  is 


Fig.   12. — The  "Empire"  Film-Winder 


After  a  picture  has  been  run  through  the  projector  it  has  to  be  rewound 
upon  its  spool  for  the  next  display. 

so  simple  that  there  is  no  necessity  to  describe  the  ap- 
paratus, as  the  illustration,  Fig.  12,  conveys  its  design  and 
method  of  working. 

Occasionally  when  a  film  is  being  run  through  the  pro- 
jector it  becomes  severed  by  some  means  or  other.  Before 
it  can  be  used  again  the  break  must  be  repaired  by  splicing 
the  two  parts  together.  This  is  a  simple  task.  The 
broken  edge  of  one  film  is  cut  off  about  one-eighth  of  an 
inch  below  the  line  dividing  one  picture  from  the  next. 
The  gelatine  emulsion  upon  this  small  section  is  removed 
with  a  knife.  The  other  part  of  the  film  is  trimmed  exactly 
at  the  dividing  line  between   two  pictures,   and  the  two 


138  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

facing  surfaces  of  the  film  are  treated  with  film  cement, 
applied  by  means  of  a  brush,  the  overlapping  edges  then 
being  pressed  tightly  together  and  allowed  to  dry  for  about 
three  minutes.  This  cement  is  a  combination  of  amyl- 
acetate  and  acetone  in  the  proportion  of  two  to  one  for 
ordinary  celluloid  films.  When  a  non-inflammable  film 
is  used  the  constitution  of  the  cement  is  varied.  To 
facilitate  such  splicing  a  small  clamping  device  is  used 
generally,  and,  although  it  is  not  essential  to  effect  a  good 
joint,  its  use  certainly  enables  the  task  to  be  performed 
more  neatly  and  satisfactorily.  Fig.  13. 
Though    the    excellence    of   a    moving    picture    display 


Fig.  13. — The  "Empire"  Film  Mender.  The 
Illustration  Shows  how  a  Broken  Film 
is  Rejoined. 

depends  primarily  upon  the  projector  and  the  film,  its 
brilliancy  and  clear  definition  can  be  made  or  marred  by 
the  screen.  When  the  pictures  are  being  thrown  from  the 
front  of  the  house  and  the  audience  see  a  reflected  projec- 
tion, the  screen  must  be  opaque  and  prepared  from  a 
suitably  woven  cloth.  It  is  stretched  taut,  and  the  surface 
is  treated  with  a  good  whitewash  or  matt  white  paint. 
Recently,  various  preparations  have  been  placed  on  the 
market  to  enhance  the  brilliancy  of  the  picture.  They  may 
achieve  the  result;  but  often  at  the  price  of  introducing 
other  flaws,  such  as  alteration  of  the  tone  values  and 
occasionally  the  impoverishment  of  the  pure  whites  in  the 
picture. 


xii  THEATRE   AND   ITS   EQUIPMENT  139 

If  the  audience  is  viewing  the  picture  through  the 
screen — that  is,  if  the  projector  is  placed  at  the  back  of 
the  stage  and  out  of  sight — the  sheet  must  be  made  of 
transparent  material.  This  practice,  however,  has  fallen 
into  disuse.  The  screen  must  be  set  perpendicular  to  the 
horizontal  axis  of  the  projector  objective  and  condenser, 
and  if  the  machine  is  inclined  slightly  the  sheet  must  be 
tilted  in  a  corresponding  degree,  or  it  will  be  impossible  to 
secure  a  picture  which  is  clear  and  sharp  all  over,  for  the 
simple  reason  that  some  of  the  rays  of  light  from  the  pro- 
jector will  be  shorter  than  others.  If  the  former  are 
focussed  sharp  and  clear  the  latter  will  be  blurred,  and  vice 
versa.  In  hanging  the  screen  a  certain  amount  of  care 
must  be  taken  to  secure  the  best  possible  results.  The 
edges  are  covered  with  a  black  material — velvet  is  the  best 
medium — carried  for  a  small  distance  on  all  sides  of  the 
sheet,  giving  the  appearance  of  a  white  surface  being  set 
in  a  deep  black  frame.  Such  an  arrangement  improves  the 
pictures  by  throwing  them  into  stronger  relief. 

Within  the  past  two  or  three  years  the  idea  has  come 
into  vogue  of  accompanying  movements  in  the  pictures 
with  characteristic  sound  effects.  When  a  horse  gallops, 
the  sound  of  its  feet  striking  the  road  are  heard ;  the 
departure  of  a  train  is  accompanied  by  a  whistle  and  a 
puff  as  the  engine  gets  under  weigh ;  the  breaking  of 
waves  upon  a  pebbly  beach  is  reproduced  by  a  roaring 
sound.  Opinion  appears  to  be  divided  as  to  the  value  of 
the  practice.  Some  more  cultivated  motion  photography 
lovers  are  opposed  to  it,  on  the  ground  that  unless  every 
motion  is  given  its  distinctive  sound,  none  at  all  should 
be  audible;  others  contend  that  sound  imparts  an  addi- 
tional realism  to  the  scene.  There  is  no  doubt  that  at 
times  the  sound  effects  come  as  an  unpleasant  and  disturb- 
ing shock,  especially  when  they  are  neither  in  time  nor 
harmony  with  the  motion — for  example,  when  the  realism 
of  a  mediaeval  battle  is  heightened  by  the  vigorous  rattling 
of  a  machine  gun,  or  when  horses  galloping  over  the  turf 
make  a  clatter  that  only  a  city  pavement  could  cause. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,   since  sound  effects  are  indis- 


1 4o  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

pensable  to  the  legitimate  stage,  why  should  they  not  be 
extended  to  the  moving  picture  theatre?  What  would 
Macbeth  be  without  the  crashing  of  thunder,  and  how 
could  the  impression  of  rattling  hail,  or  the  howling  and 
shrieking  of  the  wind,  be  conveyed  without  recourse  to 
various  devices  in  the  wings?  Even  if  the  play  be  in 
pantomime,  all  sound  is  not  suppressed.  The  players 
may  be  mute,  but  yet  one  hears  the  slam  of  a  door,  or  the 
crash  of  an  overturned  chair  as  it  strikes  the  floor,  and 
so  on.  Accordingly  it  would  seem  that  sound  effects  are 
perfectly  justifiable  in  moving  pictures,  provided  they  are 
judiciously  managed. 

The  first  attempts  to  introduce  sound  effects  provoked 
humorous  situations.  The  boy  deputed  to  the  task  enjoyed 
the  chance  to  make  a  noise,  and  applied  himself  with  a 
vigour  of  enthusiasm  which  overstepped  the  bounds  of 
common  sense.  Nowadays  such  effects  are  employed  with 
all  the  care  and  discrimination  expended  on  the  pictures 
themselves,  and  the  result  is  harmonious  and  pleasing. 

Of  course,  it  has  been  necessary  to  devise  all  sorts  of 
contrivances  for  realistic  sound  production,  from  the  firing 
of  a  1 2-inch  gun  to  the  squeak  of  a  mouse.  The  most 
interesting  of  these  is  the  "Allefex,"  invented  by  Mr. 
A.  H.  Moorhouse.  It  is  the  most  comprehensive  and 
ingenious  machine  ever  made  for  the  mimicry  of  sound, 
for  although  it  measures  only  four  feet  in  height,  by  about 
three  feet  in  width  and  depth,  it  produces  some  fifty 
characteristic  sounds,  including  the  howl  of  a  storm,  the 
rushing  of  waterfalls,  the  bark  of  a  dog,  and  the  twittering 
of  birds.  Every  artifice  for  producing  these  noises  is  con- 
tained within  a  small  cubical  space,  and  the  operation  has 
been  so  simplified  that  one  man  is  sufficient  for  the  task. 

A  general  impression  of  this  machine  may  be  gathered 
from  the  illustration.  It  appears  to  be  a  maze  of  levers, 
cranks,  plug-holes,  and  bulbs,  but  each  attachment  performs 
some  definite  purpose  and  produces  one  or  more  distinct 
sounds.  Another  striking  feature  is  that  its  operation  de- 
mands the  minimum  of  practice,  for  the  majority  of  the 
effects  are  produced  by  straightforward  action.    It  is  only 


HOW    THE   SOUND    Klll.i    I      ACCOMPANIMENTS    I"    PICTl   RES    ARE    PRODUl   ED. 
In-  ingenious  "  Allefex '    machi  n     v  fifty  distinctive  noi:es  can  be  made. 


xii  THEATRE   AND   ITS   EQUIPMENT  141 

here  and  there  that  a  little  practice  is  required,  such  as,  for 
instance,  to  imitate  the  bark  of  a  dog,  or  the  cry  of  a  baby. 

It  would  be  impossible  to  describe  in  one  chapter  all  the 
various  effects  produced  by  means  of  this  apparatus.  I 
will  confine  myself,  therefore,  to  some  of  the  more  difficult 
sounds,  many  of  them  apparently  beyond  the  reach  of 
mechanical  mimicry.  The  shot  of  a  gun  is  imitated  by 
striking  a  drum  at  the  top  of  the  machine,  on  which  a 
chain  mat  has  been  placed,  a  smart  blow  with  a  felt  drum- 
stick as  near  the  centre  as  possible.  The  same  device 
serves  to  represent  successive  shots.  The  interior  of  the 
drum  is  fitted  with  three  drum-sticks,  which  are  manipu- 
lated by  the  turning  of  a  handle,  the  number  of  shots 
varying,  with  the  speed,  according  to  the  picture.  At  the 
bottom  of  the  machine  is  a  large  bellows  worked  by  the 
foot.  Their  manipulation  in  conjunction  with  one  or  other 
of  the  handles  will  produce  the  sound  of  exhaust  steam 
issuing  from  a  locomotive,  the  rumbling  of  a  train  rushing 
through  a  tunnel,  and  so  on.  Running  water,  rain,  hail, 
and  the  sound  of  rolling  waves  are  obtained  by  turning  a 
handle,  which  rotates  a  ribbed  wooden  cylinder  against  a 
board  set  at  an  angle  from  the  top  of  which  hang  a 
number  of  chains.  By  varying  the  speed  of  the  cylinder 
any  of  the  above  sounds  may  be  obtained  with  accuracy. 
The  puffing  of  an  engine  is  made  by  revolving  a  cylinder 
with  projections  against  a  steel  brush;  the  crash  of  china, 
pots  and  pans,  &c,  is  due  to  the  revolution  of  a  shaft  on 
which  are  mounted  a  series  of  tappets  striking  against 
hammers,  which  in  turn  come  into  contact  with  a  number 
of  steel  plates.  The  crackling  of  a  machine  gun  is  caused 
by  turning  a  shaft  having  tappets  which  strike  and  lift  up 
wooden  laths,  subsequently  releasing  them  to  strike  smartly 
against  the  framework  of  the  machine.  The  same  device 
also  serves  for  imitating  the  crash  attending  the  upsetting 
of  chairs,  tables,  and  so  on.  Pendant  tubes  serve  to  pro- 
duce the  effects  of  church  bells,  fire  alarm,  ship's  bell,  and 
similar  noises;  the  sound  of  trotting  horses  is  caused  by 
revolving  a  shaft  carrying  three  tappets  which  lift  up  in- 
verted cups.     This  shaft  is  slightly  movable,  so  that  by 


142  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

adjustment  a  trot  can  be  converted  into  a  gallop  and  vice 
versa,  while  distance  effects  are  obtained  by  a  muffling 
attachment.  Thunder  is  made  by  shaking  a  sheet  of  steel 
hanging  on  one  side  of  the  machine;  the  press  of  a  bulb 
gives  the  bark  of  a  dog ;  the  bellows  and  another  attach- 
ment operate  the  warbling  bird;  while  the  cry  of  the  baby 
is  emitted  by  the  dexterous  manipulation  of  plug-hole  and 
bellows. 

A  machine  like  this  is  a  distinct  acquisition  to  the 
modern  picture  theatre,  for  when  skilfully  controlled  it 
provides  a  scientific  and  perfect  mechanical  apparatus  for 
the  production  of  distinctive  sound,  correctly,  and  at  the 
proper  moment.  At  the  same  time,  it  is  so  simple  that 
little  practice  is  demanded  to  make  the  operator  expert  in 
the  art  of  mechanical  mimicry. 

During  the  past  two  years  special  attention  has  been 
devoted  to  what  is  called  "daylight  projection,"  i.e.,  the 
display  of  pictures  in  broad  daylight.  A  method  evolved 
by  Quentin  for  accomplishing  this  end  was  adopted  at 
the  Cinema  Palace  in  Paris  nearly  three  years  ago.  Here 
the  practice  was  to  show  the  pictures  upon  the  screen  with 
half  the  lamps  in  the  theatre  lighted,  the  projector  being 
66  feet  from  the  screen,  the  size  of  the  picture  being  10  by 
8  feet,  and  the  arc  lamp  taking  normally  a  current  of 
30  amperes  from  the  supply  mains  of  a  uo-volt  circuit. 
Another  system  to  the  same  end  was  evolved  by  Antoine 
and  Prosper  Poch,  the  image  being  projected  upon  a 
translucent  screen  placed  between  the  spectators  and  the 
projector.  With  this  apparatus  the  pictures  could  be 
thrown  upon  a  screen  measuring  about  24  by  30  inches,  so 
as  to  be  clearly  visible  in  the  middle  of  the  day  by  people 
passing  along  the  street. 

For  this  work  the  screen  demands  special  treatment.  If 
it  is  to  be  used  only  temporarily,  the  tracing  cloth  used 
by  architects  is  a  very  satisfactory  material.  One  inventor 
produced  what  he  called  a  "rainbow  screen,"  prepared  by 
soaking  a  suitable  white  material  with  fish  glue  and 
attaching  thereto  a  thin  layer  of  tinted  fabric.  Moving 
pictures  "without  darkness"   have  been  exploited  in  the 


xii  THEATRE   AND   ITS  EQUIPMENT  143 

United  States  upon  a  small  scale,  and  on  one  or  two 
occasions  in  this  country.  The  object  of  the  plan,  how- 
ever, is  not  quite  clear,  for  moving  pictures  can  obviously 
be  seen  at  their  best  only  in  total  darkness  or  a  very  slight 
suffused  red  glow.  It  is  claimed  by  the  advocates  of  the 
daylight  pictures  that  the  eyes  are  fatigued  less  under  such 
conditions.  The  advantage,  however,  has  not  been  recog- 
nised by  the  public,  for  daylight  projection  is  no  more 
popular  to-day  than  it  was  in  1897,  when  the  appearance 
of  a  method  for  accomplishing  it  appeared  and  sank  into 
oblivion  after  causing  a  passing  interest. 

A  prominent  feature  of  the  development  of  the  cinemato- 
graph theatre  is  the  formation  of  "moving  picture  circuits," 
or  chains  of  theatres  controlled  by  one  organisation.  This 
practice  was  taken  over,  of  course,  from  the  music  hall 
and  the  legitimate  stage ;  and  its  application  to  the  new 
field  has  been  largely  responsible  for  the  improved  status 
of  the  cinematographic  industry.  Keen  and  growing 
rivalry  is  displayed  between  the  various  circuits.  Thus  has 
developed  a  spirit  of  healthy  competition,  resulting  in  the 
improvement  of  the  picture  theatre  as  a  building,  and  in 
the  production  of  superior  programmes.  When  two  or 
more  rivals  in  a  single  town  are  making  a  common  bid  for 
popular  favour,  the  public  naturally  patronises  the  estab- 
lishment which  offers  the  most  refined  pictures  combined 
with  comfort  in  the  seating  arrangements.  The  inferior 
film  is  being  driven  from  the  better  class  of  cinematograph 
theatre,  where  a  programme  is  offered  which  is  varied  in 
character,  and  of  the  highest  excellence  from  the  photo- 
graphic, dramatic,  and  educational  point  of  view,  as  well 
as  from  that  of  sheer  amusement. 

In  the  United  States  the  growth  of  the  cinematograph 
theatre  has  been  phenomenal.  The  success  of  the  first 
displays  with  the  Lumiere  machine  at  the  Eden  Mus£e 
prompted  the  proprietors  of  other  places  of  entertainment 
to  introduce  the  biograph  in  their  programmes.  The 
news  of  its  success  at  the  Alhambra  in  the  English  metro- 
polis doubtless  likewise  influenced  the  development  on  the 
other  side  of  the  Atlantic.     The  first  display  in  a  New 


i44  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

York  music  hall  was  at  the  Union  Square  Theatre  in  the 
Keith  vaudeville  circuit.  It  did  not  meet  with  an  imme- 
diately enthusiastic  reception ;  but  in  a  few  days  it  caught 
the  public  fancy,  and  thereafter  the  house  was  always  well 
filled.  The  value  of  the  moving  picture  machine  to  this 
house  is  reflected  by  the  average  weekly  receipts.  At  the 
time  of  its  introduction  the  average  receipts  were  ^600 
($3,000)  per  week;  a  month  later  they  had  risen  to  ,£1,400 
($7,000) — the  cinematograph  more  than  doubled  the 
revenue  of  the  theatre. 

Within  a  year  there  was  not  a  music  hall  of  repute  in 
the  country  which  did  not  possess  its  bioscope.  Then 
came  the  first  movement  towards  the  creation  of  a  moving 
picture  palace,  in  the  same  way  that  it  occurred  in  England. 
Empty  shops  were  taken  on  all  sides,  and  within  a  few 
years  there  were  no  less  than  600  of  these  "store  "  theatres, 
or  "nickel"  and  "dime"  shows,  in  New  York  alone,  while 
about  30,000  similar  establishments  dotted  the  country 
between  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific  Oceans,  and  from  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the  Great  Lakes. 

Men  who  started  with  no  more  capital  than  was  barely 
sufficient  to  purchase  the  outfit  and  rent  the  empty  shop, 
found  that  they  had  discovered  an  El  Dorado.  The  more 
energetic  started  theatre  after  theatre,  and  in  a  short  time 
possessed  "circuits"  of  twenty  or  more  moving  picture 
shows.  One  of  these  pioneers,  Marcus  Loew,  starting 
unpretentiously  in  a  suburban  district,  found  himself  in 
five  years  possessed  of  forty  theatres,  from  which  the 
money  rolled  into  his  banking  account  in  forty  steady 
streams.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  this  fortune  was 
accumulated  from  the  public  in  five  and  ten  cent  pieces. 

At  the  present  time  the  moving  picture  theatre  in  the 
United  States  is  in  a  state  of  transition.  The  palatial 
character  of  the  British  cinematograph  theatre  haS  spurred 
ambitious  spirits  in  the  United  States  to  like  achievements. 
Loew  has  built  two  palaces,  spending  some  $1,000,000 
(,£200,000)  upon  the  buildings  and  appointments. 

Moving  pictures  are  rivalling  all  other  forms  of  enter- 
tainment in  the  United  States.     As  suitable  buildings  fall 


xii  THEATRE   AND   ITS   EQUIPMENT         145 

vacant  exorbitant  bids  are  made  by  rival  factions  to  secure 
their  acquisition,  and  the  rents  paid  are  very  high. 
William  Fox,  a  man  very  similar  in  character  to  Loew, 
who  entered  the  field  a  year  later  than  he,  startled  the 
cinematographic  world  by  acquiring  the  lease  of  a  legiti- 
mate theatre  in  the  fashionable  theatrical  centre  at  a  yearly 
rental  of  ,£10,000  ($50,000),  and  converting  it  to  cinemato- 
graphy. Scarcely  had  the  excitement  died  down  when  it 
was  announced  that  he  had  rented  the  Academy  of  Music 
at  ,£20,000  ($100,000)  per  annum.  The  price  he  is  paying 
in  rental  to  bring  moving  pictures  before  the  public  con* 
tinuously  throughout  the  day  represents  one-third  of  the 
original  cost  of  erecting  the  building,  so  that  the  pro- 
prietors may  be  said  to  have  profited  handsomely  in  the 
transaction.  Gambling  in  sites  for  the  establishment  of 
picture  palaces  in  the  United  States  has  reached  a  far 
greater  climax  than  was  ever  attained  in  Great  Britain  in 
the  height  of  the  enthusiasm.  Here  the  bubble  has  been 
pricked,  and  the  same  outcome  is  anticipated  in  the  United 
States.  Probably  the  most  luxurious  picture  palaces  in 
the  world  are  in  South  America;  there  they  are  palaces  in 
the  fullest  sense  of  the  word.  That  territory  has  scarcely 
been  touched  yet,  and  is  one  of  the  most  attractive  fields 
for  development.  It  is  in  the  "land  of  to-morrow"  that 
animated  pictures  promise  to  attain  their  greatest  heights 
of  success. 


CHAPTER    XIII 

HOW    A  CINEMATOGRAPH   PLAY    IS   PRODUCED 

When  a  stirring  drama  or  uproarious  farce  is  projected 
upon  the  screen  the  actions  are  so  natural,  the  situations 
develop  so  obviously — in  fact,  the  whole  thing  proceeds 
so  smoothly — that  the  average  person  concludes  that  the 
production  of  a  picture  play  is  the  simplest  thing  in  the 
world.  But  the  average  person  was  never  more  mistaken. 
A  visit  to  a  studio-theatre  to  follow  a  production  from  the 
beginning  to  the  end  undeceives  him  very  promptly  and 
thoroughly. 

The  stage  management  of  a  play  before  the  celluloid 
film  is  far  more  exacting  than  the  staging  of  a  play  behind 
the  footlights.  Situations  have  to  be  handled  which  never 
develop  on  the  legitimate  stage.  The  picture  play  is  essen- 
tially pantomime  and  the  camera  is  a  searching,  un- 
equivocal critic.  It  produces  a  stern,  matter-of-fact 
representation  of  what  is  enacted  before  it.  There  is  no 
dialogue  to  conceal  blemishes,  or  mitigate  the  deficiencies 
of  the  actors  and  actresses.  Words  have  to  be  converted 
into  action  and  gestures.  In  a  picture-play  every  muscle 
of  the  body  has  practically  to  be  called  into  use  to  convey 
to  the  spectator  a  lucid  and  coherent  idea  of  the  progress 
of  the  plot,  since  there  is  nothing  but  the  action  to  tell 
him  "what  it  is  all  about." 

Furthermore,  everything  must  be  condensed  to  the  irre- 
ducible minimum  without  forfeiting  coherency.  The  plot 
must  be  unravelled  without  the  slightest  interruption  of  the 
main  thread  of  the  story.  Once  the  spectator  loses  grip 
of  the  theme,  interest  is  lost.    As  brevity  is  the  soul  of  wit, 

so  terseness  is  the  keynote  of  success  in  a  picture-play. 

146 


ch.  xin  HOW  A  PLAY  IS  PRODUCED  147 

The  producer  must  be  a  man  of  many  parts.  He  must 
have  a  keen  instinct  for  dramatic  situation,  possess  wide 
histrionic  ability  and  experience,  have  a  sharp  eye  for 
minute  detail,  be  supplied  with  unlimited  energy,  and 
capacity  to  extract  the  utmost  from  his  company.  One 
factor  is  all-important  to  him — time.  The  stage-manager 
works  on  a  time-schedule,  not  of  minutes,  but  of  seconds ; 
it  must  be  remembered  that  every  second  of  time  is  equiva- 
lent to  twelve  inches  of  film.  A  producer  will  spend  five 
minutes  in  the  effort  to  condense  by  five  seconds  the  action 
necessary  for  a  certain  situation. 

In  what  form  does  the  picture  play  reach  the  stage- 
manager's  hands  for  production  ?  Does  the  playwright 
prepare  the  contribution  in  detail  complete  with  dialogue 
and  business,  as  if  for  the  theatrical  stage,  or  does  he  supply 
a  bare  outline  ?  The  answer  varies  according  to  the 
dramatist,  and  to  the  stage-manager  for  whom  he  is  work- 
ing. Some  authors  cannot  convey  their  ideas  coherently 
without  extensive  dialogue.  Others  can  achieve  their  end 
in  200  words.  Again,  one  producer  fails  to  see  eye-to-eye 
with  the  author's  idea  unless  the  latter  is  worked  out 
minutely,  while  another  will  grasp  the  whole  situation 
instantly.  As  a  result,  it  is  impossible  to  lay  down  any 
hard  and  fast  rules,  as  to  how  to  write  a  picture-play ;  but, 
generally  speaking,  the  briefer  the  scenario  or  story  of  the 
play,  the  more  likely  it  is  to  find  favour,  all  other  things 
being  equal. 

I  have  seen  both  methods  in  execution.  In  one  case  the 
author's  story  had  been  worked  out  to  the  smallest  detail, 
the  manuscript  covering  some  fifty  pages.  On  the  other 
hand,  a  friend  of  mine  who  has  produced  many,  eminently 
successful  picture  films,  scribbles  the  bare  idea  on  a  single 
sheet  of  paper — the  back  of  an  envelope  suffices  sometimes — 
briefly  indicating  the  progress  of  the  plot  step  by  step, 
retaining  all  the  stage  business  in  his  head,  and  modifying 
his  ideas  as  he  proceeds,  to  suit  the  circumstances. 

Equally  divergent  is  the  practice  followed  in  production. 
Among  the  French  producers  the  general  method  is  to 
write  out  all  the  parts  complete  with  dialogue,  and  to  hand 

L  2 


148  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

the  lines  to  the  members  of  the  company  concerned,  to  be 
committed  to  memory  in  the  usual  way.  Actors  and 
actresses  thus  become  familiarised  with  the  atmosphere  of 
the  story,  and  are  left  to  a  great  extent  to  their  own  his- 
trionic instinct  to  interpret  the  character  assigned,  the  pro- 
ducer introducing  his  ideas  as  rehearsals  proceed. 

On  the  other  hand,  many  producers  prefer  to  keep  the 
members  of  their  company  in  ignorance  of  the  plot.  The 
story  is  carried  through  in  brief  sections,  step  by  step,  the 
lengths  of  each  section  being  between  45  and  100  seconds 
or  thereabouts.  The  actors  and  actresses  are  given  in- 
structions as  to  how  to  make  up  their  characters,  and  are 
then  marshalled  upon  the  stage.  The  first  situation  in  the 
play  is  taken,  the  producer  showing  each  character  con- 
cerned how  the  part  is  to  be  played.  The  members  are 
put  through  their  paces  time  after  time,  rehearsing  being 
continued  until  the  whole  company  moves  like  a  machine, 
and  then  the  camera  films  the  incident.  Sometimes  the 
producer  himself  will  undertake  a  part,  and  shout  instruc- 
tions on  the  stage  as  the  action  proceeds,  keeping  every 
actor  and  actress  moving  just  as  he  desires.  This  method 
is  followed  very  extensively  in  America.  Its  advantage  is 
that  the  members  of  the  company,  not  knowing  what  is 
coming  next,  are  kept  acutely  expectant  in  order  to  fall 
naturally  into  the  spirit  of  the  parts  and  plot ;  they  work 
themselves  to  a  high  pitch  of  intensity ;  and  this  gives  the 
play  the  vim  and  animation  which  are  peculiarly  requisite 
for  a  picture-play. 

By  this  method  also  the  stage-manager  compels  the  actors 
and  actresses  to  interpret  his  ideas,  which  he  regards  as 
suiting  the  man  in  the  street.  The  members  of  the  com- 
pany have  no  opportunity  to  thrust  their  own  impressions 
before  the  camera.  When  the  lines  are  given  out  before- 
hand to  the  members  of  the  company,  each  naturally  forms 
an  individual  opinion  as  to  how  this  or  that  part  should 
be  played,  and  once  this  impression  has  taken  root,  it  is 
difficult  for  the  producer  to  modify  it  upon  the  lines  he 
has  conceived.  Another  disadvantage  of  the  latter  method 
is  that  an  actor  or  actress  sometimes  fails  to  regard  a  part 


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xiii  HOW  A  PLAY  IS  PRODUCED  149 

with  sympathy,  and  the  result  lacks  realistic  effect. 
Repeated  rehearsals  also  tend  to  dull  enthusiasm  ;  the  mem- 
bers of  the  company  become  somewhat  lethargic ;  and  there 
is  a  marked  absence  of  zest  and  swing  in  the  resultant 
picture. 

When  the  play  reaches  the  producer's  hands  the  first 
point  is  to  settle  the  length  of  film  to  which  it  shall 
run.  This  depends  upon  the  character  of  the  play  itself. 
The  average  length  varies  between  600  and  1,000  feet,  occu- 
pying from  ten  to  sixteen  minutes  to  project  upon  the 
screen.  If  an  elaborate  or  novel  production  is  contemplated 
of  a  character  able  to  sustain  the  interest  of  the  audience, 
the  length  may  be  doubled  or  quadrupled.  The  film  ver- 
sion of  "A  Tale  of  Two  Cities,"  for  instance,  ran  to  3,000 
feet,  which  meant  that  the  screen  was  occupied  for  some 
sixty  minutes.  That  was  an  exceptional  production,  how- 
ever, and  there  are  few  plays  which  could  rivet  the  attention 
of  an  audience  for  an  hour. 

The  actors  and  actresses,  like  the  producer,  are  drawn 
from  the  legitimate  theatre.  The  majority  of  the  large 
organisations  collect  and  maintain  their  own  stock  com- 
panies, ready  to  produce  any  character  for  any  description 
of  play.  This  idea  was  first  practised,  and  is  still  continued 
to  a  limited  extent,  in  Great  Britain,  the  company  averaging 
six  or  eight  principals.  But  in  the  early  days  the  public 
resented  the  too  frequent  appearance  of  the  same  face 
upon  the  screen ;  so  the  studios  which  were  situated  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  metropolis  began  to  draw  their  material  from 
the  theatrical  market,  securing  an  excellent  selection,  and 
at  the  same  time  plenty  of  variety. 

Cinematograph  studios  situated  farther  afield  availed 
themselves  of  the  touring  theatrical  companies,  whose 
members  benefited  appreciably  from  the  introduction  of  the 
film-play;  as  it  gave  them  an  opportunity  to  increase  an 
otherwise  meagre  weekly  wage.  The  practice  is  still  in 
vogue  in  the  British  provinces,  and  has  been  found  very 
profitable  to  the  producer,  because  the  varied  experience  of 
the  average  touring  actor  or  actress  is  a  valuable  asset  on 
the  picture-play  stage. 


150  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

The  film-play  does  not  offer  any  opportunity  to  the 
amateur  theatrical  individual.  The  camera  emphasises  far 
too  acutely  any  weak  points  in  histrionic  ability.  The  pro- 
fessional is  the  essential  raw  material,  and  the  heart-break- 
ing drill  of  the  legitimate  stage  renders  the  actor  or  actress 
all  the  better  adapted  to  the  exacting  requirements  of  the 
film  play ;  though  at  times  it  demands  indescribable  patience 
and  perseverance,  if  not  bullying,  on  the  part  of  the  pro- 
ducer to  compel  the  professional  to  adapt  himself  to  changed 
conditions  and  realise  the  difference  between  the  two  phases 
of  the  histrionic  art.  Many  producers,  in  fact,  prefer  to 
maintain  their  own  stock  company,  every  member  of  which 
can  grasp  in  an  instant  what  the  stage-manager  demands, 
thus  saving  much  valuable  time.  The  nucleus  is  increased 
as  necessity  demands  for  special  occasions  or  particular 
characters  from  the  ranks  of  available  touring  companies, 
while  the  supernumeraries  are  likewise  recruited  from  a 
wide  field. 

The  selection  of  the  actors  and  actresses  is  by  no  means 
easy.  The  cinematographic  stage  has  its  own  peculiar 
requirements.  The  pre-eminent  one  is  that  the  actor  or 
actress  must  not  only  act  but  look  the  part.  A  young  man 
cannot  make  up  to  take  an  old  man's  part — he  must  be  an 
old  man.  A  woman  of  middle  age  may  on  the  legitimate 
stage  excel  in  a  young  girl's  role;  but  she  may  not  take  it 
on  the  camera  stage. 

Make-up  has  to  be  reduced  to  the  minimum,  because  the 
huge  enlargement  which  the  picture  undergoes  in  projection 
renders  such  artifices  hideous.  Facial  make-up  is  prac- 
tically out  of  the  question.  Nowadays  the  practice  is  to 
abandon  general  make-up  entirely,  and  to  whiten  all  the 
faces.  Under  the  glare  of  many  thousand  candle-power 
emitted  by  several  electric  lamps  it  is  possible  in  this  way 
to  secure  striking  contrasts  in  facial  expressions.  When 
the  features  are  torn  by  malignant  hatred,  or  uproarious 
mirth,  the  shadows  formed  by  the  wrinkling  of  the  skin 
as  the  muscles  are  brought  into  operation  emphasise  the 
expression.  There  is  another  reason  for  the  whitening 
process.     An  actor   or  actress  may  have  a  natural  high 


xin  HOW  A  PLAY  IS  PRODUCED  151 

colour,  or  dark  complexion,  when  the  face  comes  out  with 
a  dark  or  black  tone,  conveying  the  impression  that  the 
part  has  been  performed  by  a  negro  or  mulatto.  This 
method  of  making  up,  however,  it  must  be  explained,  applies 
only  to  black  and  white  cinematograph  production. 

There  is  no  dearth  in  the  supply  of  actors  or  actresses, 
consequently  the  producers  are  able  to  carry  out  a  weeding 
process  in  order  that  they  may  secure  the  very  best  his- 
trionic ability.  One  large  American  company  supplies 
every  aspirant  with  a  form  in  which  to  record  full  par- 
ticulars of  his  or  her  stage  career.  If  the  applicant  has  had 
no  professional  experience  he  or  she  is  told  at  once  that 
the  company  needs  none  but  experienced  artistes. 

Certain  American  producers  have  not  only  acquired  a 
large  stock  company,  but  have  also,  by  offering  large 
salaries,  attracted  old  favourites,  whom  they  star  pre- 
cisely as  in  the  legitimate  theatre.  Posters  and  photo- 
graphs of  their  leading  actors  and  actresses  are  cir- 
culated broadcast,  and  the  public  has  its  favourites 
on  the  cinematographic  as  on  the  legitimate  stage. 
The  Edison  Company  has  fourteen  principals  at  Orange, 
in  New  Jersey;  and  in  addition  a  company  of  seven 
stationed  in  Western  America  for  plays  having  a  western 
setting.  The  Selig  Company  has  thirty  players  perman- 
ently attached  to  its  Chicago  and  Los  Angeles  establish- 
ments. The  practice  has  by  no  means  fallen  into  disuse 
in  Great  Britain.  The  Hepworth  Company,  from  whose 
studios  come  some  of  the  best  films  prepared  especially  to 
suit  British  and  Colonial  tastes,  maintains  two  stock  com- 
panies at  Walton-on-Thames ;  while  the  Kinemacolor 
plays  are  produced  by  a  stock  company  of  twelve  players, 
augmented  as  occasion  demands,  which  divide  their  time 
between  the  studio-stages  at  Hove  and  Nice,  frequenting 
the  former  during  the  English  summer,  and  spending  the 
remaining  six  months  of  the  year  in  the  south  of  France, 
being  transported  to  and  fro  each  season. 

There  has  been  considerable  complaint,  to  some  extent 
justified,  of  the  indifferent  character  of  the  British  film  play 
productions.    British  producers  have  not  received  sufficient 


1 52  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

encouragement  to  enable  them  to  incur  great  expense  in 
mounting  or  in  the  maintenance  of  a  large  and  excellent 
stock  company.  However,  there  are  signs  of  a  change; 
and  as  the  technical  quality  of  the  picture  is  improving  it 
should  not  be  long  before  the  British  film  play  industry 
attains  a  position  of  importance.  As  soon  as  this  happens 
a  wide  success  will  be  reaped ;  for  this  country  possesses 
unique  and  extensive  opportunities  for  producing  plays 
capable  of  making  a  world-wide  appeal,  and  is  rich  in  the 
natural  settings  so  much  in  demand  for  the  attainment  of 
atmosphere. 

Let  us  follow  the  production  of  a  picture  play  at  a  large 
establishment  having  between  three  and  six  producers  at 
work  every  day  from  morning  to  night.  The  players  upon 
arrival  consult  the  "call-board"  to  see  when  rehearsals 
commence,  upon  what  stage,  and  for  what  productions. 
One  artist  may  appear  in  two  or  three  plays  in  a  single 
day,  as  a  play  is  occasionally  not  photographed  complete 
through  all  its  scenes ;  it  may  be  interrupted  for  several 
days  from  some  reason  or  other. 

At  the  pre-arranged  time  the  company  assembles  upon 
its  allotted  stage.  The  manager  marshals  those  required 
in  the  scene  and  explains  precisely  what  he  wants  each 
artist  to  do.  The  business  on  the  stage  is  demonstrated, 
and  those  in  waiting  are  told  just  how  to  make  their  en- 
trances, and  all  exits  are  indicated  very  concisely.  The 
stage-manager  rehearses  the  first  episode  before  those  con- 
cerned, to  convey  a  general  idea  of  his  requirements,  and 
they  immediately  repeat  it.  No  dialogue  is  written,  but 
the  actors  of  professional  experience  realise  what  words  are 
demanded  for  different  situations,  and  accordingly  extem- 
porise as  they  proceed.  In  the  reproduction  the  movement 
of  the  lips  renders  the  action  distinctly  more  conclusive  and 
realistic ;  moreover,  the  enunciation  of  suitable  dialogue 
induces  the  correct  facial  expression,  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant requirements  in  the  picture  play,  and  the  audience 
must  at  times  derive  from  it  the  significance  of  the  situation. 

In  this  fragmentary  manner  the  producer  carries  the 
company  through  the  incident,  and  it  is  now  rehearsed  time 


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xin  HOW  A  PLAY  IS  PRODUCED  153 

after  time,  little  modifications  and  improvements  being 
made  on  each  occasion  to  animate  the  action  still  further. 
Those  waiting  to  enter  are  given  the  cue,  and  when  an  exit 
has  to  be  made  it  is  announced  in  an  emphatic  manner  by 
the  manager.  The  scene  is  repeated  perhaps  a  dozen  times 
before  it  goes  with  the  swing  that  the  producer  desires. 
Then  what  may  be  termed  a  dress  rehearsal  is  carried  out. 
Watch  in  hand,  the  camera  operator  follows  it  through 
from  end  to  end.  The  producer  has  decided  the  length  of 
film  the  whole  play  shall  occupy,  and  has  allotted  to  each 
incident  a  certain  number  of  seconds,  that  is,  of  feet  of  film. 
The  final  rehearsal  completed,  the  producer  inquires,  "  How 
long?" 

"Seventy  seconds,"  replies  the  operator. 

"Too  long,"  remarks  the  producer,  and  forthwith  the 
scene  is  rehearsed  once  more,  the  producer  abbreviating  it 
as  the  action  proceeds,  by  shouting  stentorian  orders  to 
the  players  to  make  a  quicker  entry,  cutting  short  a  situa- 
tion, or  by  sharply  and  unceremoniously  telling  a  member 
to  "get  off"  if  there  is  a  sign  of  lingering  in  the  exit. 

"Fifty-five  seconds,"  remarks  the  operator. 

It  is  still  too  long  by  five  or  six  seconds.  The  producer 
sees  where  he  can  compress  the  scene  still  more,  so  decides 
to  do  this  while  the  camera  is  working.  The  operator  takes 
his  position,  and  then  a  scene  of  great  animation  is  wit- 
nessed. 

"Are  you  ready?"  shouts  the  manager.  The  actors 
come  to  the  alert.  "Right !  "  The  camera  commences  its 
rhythmic  purring,  and  as  the  first  strains  of  the  buzz 
break  out  the  manager  gives  vent  to  a  loud  "  Go  !  " 

The  whole  time  the  picture  is  being  filmed  the  producer 
is  shouting  instructions,  giving  abrupt  cues,  and  sharp 
orders  as  to  how  to  improve  the  business.  Although  orders 
and  commands  are  delivered  in  an  endless  stream,  not  a 
single  player  loses  his  head.  One  and  all  proceed  as  if  the 
manager  were  non-existent.  It  is  a  babel  of  noise;  the 
producer  raps  out  breathless  orders  such  as  "Look  towards 
the  camera"— "Shout  out  the  dialogue  "—"Come  towards 
the  front  "—"Get  off  !"— "Look  happy"— "Not  so  quickly" 


154  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

— "Come  in" — "Roll  your  eyes" — "Don't  move  your 
hands  as  if  you  were  playing  the  piano" — "Cry!" — 
"  Hurry  up  !  "  and  so  on  without  ceasing.  The  actors  are 
worked  up  to  an  exciting  pitch,  each  man  and  woman 
singling  out  the  comment  which  concerns  him  or  her.  The 
scene  is  brought  to  a  climax,  and  there  is  a  shout  of  "  Stop." 
The  purring  of  the  camera  ceases  immediately. 

"How  many  feet?"  inquires  the  producer. 

"Fifty-three,"  replies  the  operator. 

"  Good  !  Next  scene  !  Twelve  years  later,"  and  forthwith 
every  artist  receives  further  explicit  instructions. 

Perhaps  the  operator  finds  that  he  has  not  enough  film 
in  the  box  to  carry  him  through  the  whole  of  a  scene.  In 
such  a  case,  when  by  reference  to  the  dial  on  the  camera 
he  finds  that  the  film  is  on  the  verge  of  exhaustion,  he  cries 
"Stop!"  Immediately  the  actors  become  rooted  to  the 
spot  and  remain  motionless  until  a  new  loaded  box  of  film 
is  inserted  into  the  camera  and  threaded  up,  an  operation 
which  takes  half  a  minute  or  so.  Occasionally  the  "Stop  " 
call  is  given  at  an  awkward  moment,  when  the  stage  hands 
rush  forward  to  support  artists  who  have  been  interrupted 
in  the  middle  of  some  action,  and  are  caught  in  difficult 
positions.  When  the  word  "Go!"  is  given  once  more, 
the  supporters  rush  off  the  stage  and  the  acting  is  resumed 
as  if  there  had  been  no  interference.  The  first  few  pictures 
upon  the  new  film  are  afterwards  cut  out,  and  the  connec- 
tion between  the  two  bands  is  effected  so  neatly  that  no 
evidence  of  a  break  in  continuity  is  revealed  upon  the 
screen. 

As  on  the  legitimate  stage,  so  here  also  there  is  a  tendency 
to  pay  more  and  more  attention  to  realistic  detail.  Once 
upon  a  time  it  sufficed  for  a  frontier  scene  if  a  shack  were 
painted  on  the  back  cloth.  Every  time  an  actor  touched 
the  cloth  a  series  of  undulating  waves  went  across  it,  with 
ludicrous  effect.  A  disconcerting  ripple  of  laughter  would 
run  through  the  house,  even  in  the  midst  of  an  intensely 
tragic  situation.  The  public  soon  lost  interest  in  plays  so 
ill  mounted,  and  their  dissatisfaction,  of  course,  generated 
the  necessary  improvement. 


xin  HOW  A  PLAY  IS    PRODUCED  155 

Audiences  demand  nature  and  realism,  and  the  producer 
responds.  Instead  of  improvising  a  railway  station  in 
canvas  and  battens  upon  the  stage  the  producer  transports 
his  company,  lock,  stock,  and  barrel,  together  with  all  the 
properties  in  motor  cars  or  cabs  to  an  actual  station  to 
secure  the  required  results  in  a  natural  setting.  If  a  scene 
is  laid  in  a  given  thoroughfare,  the  company  is  sent  thither 
to  act  the  story. 

In  the  United  States  the  demand  for  realism  has  de- 
veloped almost  into  mania.  The  American  Biograph 
Company  had  arranged  to  produce  a  film  version  of  the 
famous  Indian  novel  "Ramona,"  in  which  the  great  scene 
is  the  devastation  of  a  white  settlement  by  Indians.  The 
story  is  laid  in  California;  so  the  firm  assembled  a  company 
of  sixty-five  artists  and  dispatched  them  across  the  con- 
tinent from  New  York  to  the  Pacific  Coast,  where  they 
stayed  five  months  so  as  to  become  saturated  with  the 
environment.  In  order  that  the  sacking  and  destruction 
of  homes  might  be  correct  in  every  detail,  a  small  village 
was  purchased  and  fired  !  In  another  instance  the  same 
company  wanted  a  modern  fire  scene.  They  rented  a  plot 
of  land,  upon  which  they  built  a  house  of  the  style  required ; 
then  they  set  it  on  fire  and  burned  it  to  the  ground.  But 
the  Selig  Company  eclipsed  even  this  performance.  One 
day  a  fire  broke  out  in  a  large  department  store  in  the  heart 
of  the  city  of  Los  Angeles.  It  was  a  unique  opportunity  to 
obtain  a  powerful  play;  so  the  producers,  after  securing 
over  the  telephone  the  sanction  of  the  fire  brigade  authori- 
ties, hurried  principals  and  operators  to  the  conflagration. 
The  film  hero  was  garbed  in  the  uniform  of  a  fireman,  and 
at  the  head  of  a  squad  equipped  with  a  hose,  he  dashed  into 
the  burning  building ;  the  whirring  of  the  camera  testified 
that  this  incident  had  been  recorded.  Shortly  after,  a 
woman — one  of  the  best  actresses  of  the  company — was 
observed  at  an  upper  window  surrounded  by  fire  and  smoke. 
She  uttered  a  despairing  cry  for  "  Help  !  "  and  in  response, 
the  pseudo-fireman  made  a  frantic  rush  up  the  ladder,  broke 
in  the  window,  and  snatched  the  prostrate  form  of  the 
actress  from  the  flames.    The  players  ran  great  risks,  but 


156  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

the  film  producer  was  satisfied.  He  had  secured  a  sensa- 
tional fire  rescue  in  an  actual  big  fire  in  a  crowded  thorough- 
fare, with  the  fire  engines,  a  towering  building,  smoking 
and  well  alight,  and  a  huge  crowd  looking  on  as  a  setting. 
It  is  hard  to  imagine  a  stage-manager  attempting  this  feat 
under  similar  conditions  in  London  or  any  other  European 
city. 

The  feverish  clamour  for  realism  has  occasionally  met 
the  reward  of  rashness.  In  South  London,  in  a  scene  where 
a  railway  locomotive  played  an  important  part,  one  of  the 
men  in  the  act  was  run  over  and  killed ;  in  another  case  an 
actor  was  drowned  while  engaged  in  a  thrilling  water  scene. 
Mr.  Edison  relates  that  during  the  filming  of  a  Boer  War 
play  by  his  company,  one  of  the  actors  dropped  a  lighted 
match  into  a  glass  vessel  containing  gunpowder  !  He  has 
been  picking  stray  pieces  of  glass  from  various  parts  of 
his  anatomy  ever  since  !  In  another  instance  a  superan- 
nuated cannon  was  used,  which  killed  one  or  two  actors 
and  injured  many  others. 

An  elaborate  production,  which  is  a  great  favourite  in 
the  United  States,  is  "Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,"  which  lends 
itself  admirably  to  film  treatment.  On  the  legitimate  stage 
"Uncle  Tom's  Cabin  "  has  become  to  the  touring  American 
manager  what  "East  Lynne  "  is  to  his  English  contem- 
porary. It  will  fill  a  house ;  and  it  has  established  the  same 
rank  for  itself  in  the  cinematograph  theatre. 

As  an  amusing  comment  on  this  fact,  I  must  tell  the 
story  of  the  introduction  of  the  cinematographic  version 
south  of  Mason  and  Dixon's  line.  The  stage  version  had 
never  been  played  in  the  Southern  States — managers  feared 
it  would  kindle  smouldering  fires  in  the  breasts  of  the 
white  population.  An  invisible  barrier  was  drawn  across 
the  country  south  of  which  the  play  never  ventured.  The 
same  apprehension  was  entertained  in  regard  to  the  moving 
picture  production.  However,  one  manager  took  the  risk 
and  presented  the  film  to  a  crowded  house  in  New  Orleans. 
It  had  been  announced  for  a  night  or  two  only,  but  its 
success  was  so  overwhelming  that  it  held  the  screen  for  two 
or  three  weeks,  the  house  being  crowded  at  each  projection. 


—  -Z  — 

-  P    & 


3 


xin  HOW  A  PLAY  IS  PRODUCED  157 

The  moving  picture  producer  is  even  capable  of  turning 
to  account  a  disaster  to  his  own  plant.  While  a  play  was 
in  progress  upon  a  studio-stage  in  New  York  the  building 
caught  fire,  and  unrehearsed  scenes  were  enacted.  The 
camera  operator  seized  the  opportunity.  While  the  build- 
ing was  blazing,  and  the  company  were  rushing  wildly 
to  and  fro,  he  kept  his  handle  turning  lustily,  and  as  a 
result  filmed  the  whole  subject.  In  order  to  secure  a 
dramatic  automobile  disaster  the  Edison  Company  drove  a 
motor-car  to  the  top  of  a  lofty  cliff.  A  dummy  was  seated 
in  the  vehicle  to  take  the  part  of  the  character  who  had  been 
acting  in  the  play  up  to  this  point,  the  steering-wheel  was 
fixed  in  its  hand,  the  car  was  started  up,  and  it  was  driven 
at  full  speed  to  the  edge  of  the  cliff,  over  which  it  plunged. 
The  film  operator  caught  it  falling  through  the  air,  as  well 
as  the  splash  produced  by  its  headlong  dive  into  the  waves. 
Another  company  desired  to  secure  a  dynamite  explosion 
at  sea.  For  this  purpose  it  purchased  an  old  schooner  for 
^200  ($1,000),  stocked  it  with  dynamite,  towed  it  beyond 
sight  of  land,  where  the  charge  was  detonated,  and  a 
stirring  series  of  pictures  of  the  disaster  was  recorded  from 
the  deck  of  a  yacht  chartered  especially  for  the  occasion. 

Sometimes  the  struggle  after  realism  provokes  humorous 
situations.  The  Edison  Company  once  wanted  a  riot  scene, 
so  they  produced  one  in  a  quiet  country  district  by  the  aid 
of  their  company  and  a  number  of  local  supernumeraries, 
who  entered  into  the  plot  with  tremendous  enthu- 
siasm. While  the  mock  riot  was  at  its  height  the 
myrmidons  of  the  law  swept  down  and  arrested  all  the 
ringleaders,  who,  naturally,  were  the  principals  of  the  play, 
and  promptly  incarcerated  them.  The  players  expostulated 
that  it  was  all  make-believe,  but  the  police  were  not  to  be 
hoodwinked ;  they  had  heard  that  story  before.  Some  time 
elapsed  before  the  mock  rioters  were  released  from  gaol ; 
but  the  manufacturers  scored,  because  the  interference  of 
the  police  imparted  additional  versimilitude  to  the  whole 
proceeding. 

In  Germany  an  hilarious  party  was  rowing  up  a  river. 
Suddenly  all  the  gay  company  were  seen  struggling  in  the 


i58  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

water — the  boat  had  capsized.  There  was  a  rush  from  all 
sides  to  bring  help;  boats  put  off  hurriedly,  while  spec- 
tators either  were  rooted  to  the  spot  in  horror  or  dived  into 
the  water  on  rescue  bent.  The  scene  was  intensely 
dramatic,  and  it  was  not  until  one  of  the  swimmers,  while 
bearing  the  frail  form  of  a  girl  to  the  bank,  hearing  a 
strange  buzzing  near  his  head,  looked  round  and  saw  an 
amused  operator  a  few  feet  distant,  nonchalantly  turning 
the  handle  of  a  camera.  Then  the  fact  dawned  upon  every- 
one that  the  anxious  rescuers  had  unconsciously  contributed 
to  the  greater  success  of  a  cinematograph  play. 

The  French  producers  Pathe-  Freres  once  disturbed  the 
peaceful  life  of  a  sleepy  village  by  acting  a  scene  in  the 
deserted  main  street.  While  the  work  was  in  progress  one 
of  the  most  prominent  citizens  hurried  up.  He  was  burst- 
ing with  righteous  indignation  at  the  noisy  caprices  of  the 
crowd  of  roysterers.  While  he  was  expostulating  and  utter- 
ing dire  threats  of  action,  a  policeman  appeared,  and  clap- 
ping a  firm  hand  upon  the  shoulder  of  the  interfering  person, 
threatened  to  arrest  him  for  inciting  a  breach  of  the  peace  ! 
The  admonished  resident,  somewhat  amazed  at  the  turn  of 
affairs,  moved  crestfallen  away,  and  departed  homewards. 
He  omitted  to  look  round  at  the  emissary  of  the  law,  and 
ignored  the  guffaw  of  laughter  which  burst  out  at  his 
discomfiture.  Had  he  done  so  he  would  have  observed  a 
merry  twinkle  in  the  eye  of  the  gendarme,  who  was  a 
member  of  the  party  ! 

A  company  desired  to  secure  a  love  scene  between  an 
engine-driver  and  a  country  maiden ;  so  a  small  railway  with 
the  whole  of  its  rolling-stock  on  the  outskirts  of  a  town 
was  hired  for  a  single  day.  Another  firm,  the  Kalem  Com- 
pany, decided  to  picture  a  series  of  Irish  stories.  Instead 
of  passing  off  American  scenery  as  that  of  the  Emerald 
Isle,  the  company  and  properties  were  dispatched  across 
the  Atlantic  to  the  heart  of  the  country  which  the  author  had 
selected  as  the  scenes  of  his  stories.  Recently,  the  Gaumont 
Company,  of  London,  dispatched  its  company  to  Scotland 
in  order  to  stage  Rob  Roy.  The  Duke  of  Argyll  graciously 
assisted  in   furthering  the  fidelity  of  the  setting,  by  per- 


xm  HOW  A  PLAY  IS  PRODUCED  159 

mitting  scenes  to  be  enacted  upon  his  estate  and  extending 
invaluable  aid,  volunteering  suggestions  in  order  that  every- 
thing might  be  as  correct  as  was  humanly  possible. 

The  Vitagraph  Company  undertook  the  filming  of  Fenni- 
more  Cooper's  "Leather-stocking  "  stories.  They  sent  their 
company  straightway  to  the  scene  of  Natty  Bumppo's 
adventures,  and  although  the  forest  has  disappeared  long 
since,  they  pressed  the  lake  into  useful  service.  William- 
son, the  English  producer,  filmed  a  picture  version  of  the 
tragic  story  of  Lady  Jane  Grey,  and  the  Tower  of  London 
formed  the  stage  for  some  of  the  incidents  in  the  sad  story, 
culminating  in  the  execution  of  the  "nine  days'  queen." 

Where  do  the  moving  picture  producers  obtain  their 
plots  ?  I  have  heard  this  question  asked  on  many  occa- 
sions, and  the  answer  might  be  "everywhere."  They  have 
such  an  inexhaustible  mine  in  which  to  delve  that  there 
is  never  any  difficulty  in  finding  an  episode  upon  which  to 
base  a  straightforward  simple  drama,  comedy,  tragedy,  or 
farce.  In  this  respect  the  cinematograph  producer  is  far 
better  off  than  his  rival  on  the  real  stage.  Situations,  scenes, 
and  episodes  incapable  of  production  by  the  latter,  can 
be  produced  very  simply  on  the  film.  Novels,  short  stories, 
plays,  the  Bible,  Greek  inscriptions,  inventions,  little  epi- 
sodes and  incidents  in  everyday  life — anything  and  every- 
thing is  grist  for  his  mill.  Of  course,  fashions  change  just 
as  in  any  other  phase  of  our  complex  life.  To-day  there 
is  a  demand  for  subjects  of  mediaeval  English  history; 
to-morrow  the  French  revolutionary  period  holds  the 
stage;  three  weeks  hence  there  is  a  cry  for  Bible  or  ancient 
history  subjects;  or  a  demand  for  something  modern.  It 
is  not  difficult  to  meet  each  and  every  need.  Most  of  the 
large  producing  establishments  retain  competent  writers 
who  know  how  to  prepare  plots  for  the  picture  producer, 
and  in  addition  there  is  a  staff  to  consider  plots  submitted 
from  outside  sources.  The  Edison  Company  receives  150 
scenarios  a  week,  and  other  companies  as  large  or  even  a 
larger  number.  It  will  be  discouraging  but  salutary  to 
the  beginner  to  hear  that  the  chances  of  acceptance  are 
very  slender,  the  number  of  suitable  scenarios  being  not 


160  MOVING   PICTURES  ch.  xiii 

more  than  one  per  cent,  of  those  submitted.  The  re- 
muneration varies  according  to  the  merit  of  the  work.  It 
may  be  taken  merely  for  the  title  or  one  incident  in  the 
story,  and  may  be  worth  only  four  shillings  or  a  dollar  to 
the  producer;  on  the  other  hand,  it  may  command  ^25 
($125).  There  is  no  fixed  scale.  The  trained  dramatist 
has  realised  that  in  the  picture  play  he  has  a  new  and 
increasing  source  of  revenue,  and  as  he  is  the  best  fitted 
for  the  task,  so  he  makes  the  greatest  success  in  it.  French 
writers  were  the  first  to  take  advantage  of  the  market,  and 
plays  have  been  written  and  produced  from  the  pen  of 
many  of  the  foremost  dramatists — such  accomplished  men 
as  Capus  and  others. 

The  entrance  of  the  dramatist  has  precipitated  a  new 
situation.  The  suggestion  has  been  discussed  that  well- 
known  playwrights  should  decline  to  part  with  their  work 
for  a  fixed  sum,  but  that  they  should  earn  a  royalty  pre- 
cisely as  they  do  from  their  stage  productions.  It  is  an 
intricate  question  to  solve,  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  the 
time  will  come  when  such  writers  will  receive  a  certain 
percentage  upon  the  price  realised  from  the  sale  of  every 
film  copy  of  a  picture  play  from  their  pens. 

A  recent  outcome  of  the  development  of  the  picture  play 
has  been  the  appearance  of  "independent  producers,"  who 
are  in  evidence  mostly  on  the  Continent.  These  men 
enrol  their  own  companies,  rent  or  build  a  studio, 
paint  their  own  scenery,  and  hire  whatever  properties  are 
required  from  a  theatrical  costumier.  The  plays  thus  pro- 
duced are  sold  to  some  recognised  manufacturing  firm. 
This  "free  lance"  producer  has  an  extensive  market  at 
his  disposal,  but  his  enterprise  demands  a  large  initial 
outlay.  Yet  it  is  a  movement  worthy  of  being  fostered, 
inasmuch  as  such  a  producer  is  thrown  entirely  upon  his 
own  resources,  and  it  is  only  the  merit  of  his  work  from 
all  points  of  view  which  secures  him  a  market.  The 
practice  stimulates  competition.  Indeed,  some  manufac- 
turers have  found  that  in  this  manner  they  can  secure  work 
superior  in  character  and  treatment  to  that  produced  in 
their  own  establishments. 


CHAPTER   XIV 

MOVING    PICTURES    OF   MICROBES 

During  the  past  two  or  three  years  the  cinematograph 
has  entered  a  new  field,  which,  fifteen  years  ago,  would 
have  been  regarded  as  quite  beyond  its  reach.  With  truly 
wonderful  ingenuity  the  camera  is  attached  to  the  micro- 
scope in  such  a  way  as  to  make  possible  the  production  of 
the  actual  processes  of  germ  life. 

The  microscope  is  always  a  source  of  infinite  interest. 
The  thought  of  a  whole  world  of  organisms,  existent, 
material,  yet  so  small  as  to  be  invisible,  has  a  peculiar 
fascination,  and  we  are  eagerly  curious  to  get  some  con- 
ception of  their  structure  and  movements.  But  the  possi- 
bility not  merely  of  magnifying  the  red  and  white 
corpuscles  of  the  blood  till  they  appear  like  huge  hoops, 
or  the  parasite  of  the  sleeping  sickness  to  a  length  of 
some  two  feet,  to  follow  the  attacks  of  these  foes  upon  the 
human  organism — such  a  possibility  makes  one  feel  that 
there  is  no  limit  to  the  power  of  man  over  the  natural  world. 

Micro-cinematography  is  surely  one  of  the  serious 
triumphs  of  animated  photography.  Here  again  the 
latter  offers  itself  as  a  coadjutor  to  scientific  research,  and 
proves  its  title  to  rank  among  the  educational  influences 
of  the  age. 

Micro-cinematography  may  be  djvided  into  two  broad 
classes — the  study  of  bacteria,  the  most  minute  living- 
organism  which  the  scientific  photographer  has  ever  at- 
tempted to  catch  in  motion,  and  popular  microscopy,  or 
the  study  of  insects,  plants,  pond  life,  and  so  on. 

Bacteriological  micro-cinematography  is  an  abstruse  and 
difficult  subject  for  investigation.     The  microbe  is  so  sensi- 

161  M 


1 62  MOVING  PICTURES  chap. 

tive  to  various  influences,  and  so  difficult  to  handle,  that 
it  is  a  formidable  task  to  bring  it  within  reach  of  the 
sensitised  celluloid  film  and  seize  it  in  its  normal  condition 
and  environment. 

A  French  professor,  Dr.  J.  Comandon,  of  Paris,  has 
been  for  years  absorbed  in  the  study  of  the  blood,  its 
structure,  functions,  and  the  continuous  warfare  that  is 
waged  between  the  corpuscles,  and  a  host  of  parasites  as 
seen  under  the  microscope  and  the  ultra-microscope. 

One  supposes  that  the  microscope  is  an  ideal  instrument 
for  the  investigation  of  those  objects  which  are  so  minute 
as  to  be  beyond  the  capacity  of  the  human  eye.  This, 
however,  is  far  from  being  the  case.  Briefly  described,  the 
microscopic  investigation  of  bacteria  is  carried  out  by  one 
or  more  of  three  broad  processes,  which  are  regarded 
almost  as  standardised  methods.  All  three,  however, 
possess  numerous  shortcomings.  Often  the  bacteria  has 
to  be  destroyed ;  and  the  slide  has  to  be  stained  by  means  of 
aniline  dyes,  in  order  to  bring  up  the  details  of  the  object 
sufficiently  strongly  for  examinations ;  for  the  majority  of 
the  organisms  under  investigation  are  transparent,  and 
their  image  stands  out  faintly  against  the  brilliant  light. 
Greater  success  is  possible  with  the  ultra-microscope  than 
with  the  microscope.  By  its  means  objects  so  minute  as 
to  be  invisible,  even  with  the  microscope,  can  be  thrown 
as  bright  points  upon  a  black  background,  not  necessarily 
with  sizes  and  forms  clearly  defined,  but  yet  in  such  a  way 
as  to  enable  their  positions  and  movements  to  be  ascer- 
tained and  followed. 

The  disadvantages  of  ordinary  microscopic  investigation 
are  obvious.  In  many  instances  as  the  investigator  has  to 
kill  the  germ  before  he  examines  it,  he  has  perforce  to 
content  himself  with  the  study  of  coloured  corpses  of  these 
infinitesimally  small  organisms. 

It  occurred  to  Dr.  Comandon  that  possibly  the  micro- 
scope could  be  combined  with  the  cinematograph  in  such 
a  manner  that  the  microbes  could  be  photographed  dis- 
tinctly and  brilliantly  upon  the  film,  and  subsequently 
projected  upon  the  screen  with  tremendous  magnification, 


xiv  MOVING  PICTURES  OF  MICROBES  163 

without  the  organisms  suffering  any  distortion  or  other 
ill-effects.  He  realised  that  if  this  could  be  achieved,  the 
scientist  would  be  provided  with  a  more  powerful  weapon 
for  the  examination  of  a  particular  microbe  than  hitherto 
has  been  available.  Furthermore,  if  the  object  could  be 
thrown  on  to  the  screen  with  perfect  detail,  then,  owing  to 
the  tremendous  magnification  obtained,  the  study  of  the 
life,  movement,  and  habits  of  the  parasite  would  be  possible 
under  easy  and  congenial  conditions. 

The  eminent  French  investigator  approached  Messrs. 
Pathe"  Freres,  and  unfolded  his  ideas.  The  technical 
difficulties  in  the  way  were  prodigious,  and  the  field  was 
untested,  both  in  microscopy  and  cinematography.  How- 
ever, as  there  was  the  possibility  of  some  startling  results 
being  achieved,  Pathe  Freres  decided  to  collaborate,  and 
promised  to  provide  Dr.  Comandon  with  every  facility 
he  desired. 

The  work  was  commenced  without  delay,  and  the  manu- 
facturers proceeded  with  the  construction  of  the  special 
apparatus  that  was  required.  This  had  to  be  of  an 
elaborate  character,  owing  to  the  peculiar  conditions ;  and 
exasperating  failures  attended  the  early  work. 

Although  a  cinematograph  picture  only  measures  ap- 
proximately 1  inch  in  width  by  three-quarters  of  an  inch 
in  depth,  the  first  magnification  was  considerable,  ranging 
in  the  case  of  bacteria  to  300  diameters  or  more.  This 
had  to  be  carried  out  with  punctilious  sharpness  of  detail, 
because  when  it  came  to  projection,  the  magnification  was 
multiplied  enormously,  and  any  error  in  the  original 
picture  or  negative  would  be  proportionately  increased. 

Bacteria  are  extremely  sensitive  to  light  and  heat.  Sun- 
light spells  certain  death  to  the  microbe,  and  as  a  ray  of 
electric  light  is  the  nearest  artificial  approach  to  the 
luminosity  of  our  sun,  its  destructive  component,  the  ultra- 
violet rays,  had  to  be  eliminated.  Again,  as  the  rays  from 
the  electric  arc  in  the  lantern  focussed  a  strong  heat  upon 
the  object,  and  as  this  likewise  would  bring  about  the 
sudden  demise  of  the  organism,  the  heat  rays  had  to  be 
mitigated  as  much  as  possible. 

M    2 


164  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

These  two  adverse  factors  were  removed  entirely  by  a 
novel  arrangement.  The  illustration  shows  one  of  the 
apparatuses  used  by  Dr.  Comandon  to  secure  his  won- 
derful pictures.  It  is  mounted  on  a  rigid  bench,  and 
the  parts  which  have  to  be  moved  to  and  fro  to  obtain 
adjustment,  slide  upon  a  horizontal  triangular  metal  base, 
to  which  they  are  clamped  in  the  requisite  positions  to 
secure  rigidity.  The  lantern  is  mounted  at  the  extreme 
end,  and  the  light,  supplied  from  an  electric  arc  of 
30  amperes,  is  concentrated  into  a  thin  ray,  or  pencil, 
which  falls  upon  the  object  to  be  photographed,  through 
which  it  passes  to  the  film.  The  illumination  may  be 
either  direct — that  is,  it  may  pass  in  a  straight  horizontal 
line  from  the  lantern — or  it  may  be  reflected  by  means  of 
a  mirror  in  a  direction  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the 
instrument,  or  at  right  angles,  as  in  the  ultra-microscope. 
The  principle  adopted  varies  according  to  the  subject  under 
observation.  The  organisms  contained  in  a  drop  of  blood, 
for  instance,  are  dropped  on  to  a  carefully  cleansed  glass 
plate,  which  is  inserted  in  the  microscope  in  the  usual 
manner. 

At  the  opposite  end  of  the  bench  is  the  cinematograph 
camera,  which  in  this  case  is  provided  with  extending 
bellows,  as  in  the  ordinary  camera,  for  purposes  of 
focussing.  At  the  back  of  the  camera  is  a  small  attach- 
ment whereby  the  bacteria,  greatly  magnified,  can  be 
focussed  sharply  and  clearly  upon  the  film.  On  top  of  the 
camera  is  mounted  a  small  box  containing  the  spool  of 
unexposed  sensitised  film.  When  the  contents  of  this  are 
exhausted  the  box  can  be  removed  quickly  and  easily,  and 
another  charged  film  box  substituted.  The  film  drops 
from  this  box  through  the  gate  in  the  camera,  and  issues 
below  into  a  second  film  box,  which  can  be  removed 
similarly  when  filled,  to  permit  another  empty  case  to  be 
introduced.  The  mechanism  of  the  camera  itself  is  the 
same  as  that  of  the  usual  animated  photographic  camera, 
and  it  is  operated  in  the  same  way,  by  the  turning  of  a 
handle. 

For  the  purpose  of  absorbing  the  heat  rays,  which  in  the 


U       a. 
—       « 


^      -as 

£-5  2 


<         rt 

«    a 


[Copyright,  Fat  he  Freres. 


I  tNEMATOGRAPH    FILMS   Ol-    MICROBES. 


The  phenomenon  of  agglutination 
in  a  fowl's  blood. 


2.   The  blood  of  a  fowl  suffering  from 
Spirocliwta  gallinarum. 


xiv  MOVING  PICTURES  OF  MICROBES  165 

concentrated  beam  of  light  would  kill  the  microbes  within 
a  short  space  of  timej  a  glass  cell  is  inserted  outside  the 
lantern  through  which  the  focussed  beam  of  light  is  passed. 
A  stream  of  cold  water  is  circulated  continually  through 
this  water  condenser,  thus  absorbing  the  greater  propor- 
tion of  the  heat  contained  in  the  ray  of  light,  without 
affecting  its  luminosity  in  any  way.  It  will  be  observed 
that  this  is  a  reversion  to  the  first  projecting  system 
evolved  by  the  firm  of  Lumiere  for  the  cinematograph. 

In  order  that  the  organism  under  photography  should 
not  be  subjected  to  the  action  of  the  light  any  longer  than 
is  necessary,  a  revolving  disc,  or  shutter,  is  placed  between 
the  microscope  and  the  lantern.  This  shutter  is  fitted 
with  opaque  sectors  or  blades,  corresponding  to  those  in 
the  camera,  which  at  regular  intervals  eclipse  the  lens  to 
enable  the  film  to  be  jerked  forward  the  depth  of  a  picture 
intermittently  after  each  exposure.  This  cut-off  revolves 
with  the  camera  shutter,  so  that  when  the  lens  aperture 
is  closed,  the  light  is  also  cut  off  from  the  organism  slide 
in  the  microscope.  By  this  arrangement  the  light  passes 
through  the  slide  of  bacteria  only  during  the  fraction  of 
a  second  that  the  celluloid  film  in  the  camera  is  exposed. 

The  evolution  of  this  ingenious  apparatus  occupied 
several  months  of  continuous  work  and  hard  thinking. 
Indeed,  nearly  a  year  was  spent  in  experiments  before  a 
perfect  film,  suited  to  public  exhibition,  was  produced. 

As  a  result  of  the  persevering  and  patient  experiments 
on  the  part  of  Dr.  Comandon  and  Messrs.  Pathe"  Freres,  a 
new  and  strange  world  has  been  revealed.  The  cinemato- 
graph, in  conjunction  with  the  microscope,  has  opened 
the  gates  of  a  kingdom  long  considered  beyond  the  reach 
of  all  but  the  privileged  few.  Not  only  this;  the  bacterio- 
logical scientist  is  provided  with  facilities  to  study  at  ease 
intricate  subjects  which  had  hitherto  baffled  his  skill. 
What  the  microscope  is  to  the  naked  eye,  the  micro- 
cinematograph  is  to  the  microscope. 

Some  of  the  pictures  obtained  by  Dr.  Comandon  are 
startling  to  such  a  degree  as  to  be  incredible.  It  was  my 
privilege  to  see  one  of  the  first  experimental  films  thrown 


1 66  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

upon  the  screen  in  the  Paris  Laboratory.  It  depicted  the 
main  blood  stream  of  the  frog  magnified  about  25,000 
times.  The  corpuscles  were  plainly  visible,  being  about 
the  size  of  dinner  plates.  But  most  extraordinary  was  the 
form  and  movement  of  the  parasite  in  the  blood  stream. 
This  foreign  organism  resembled  a  tadpole  in  general 
appearance,  and  it  darted  with  lightning-like  rapidity  to 
and  fro,  pressing  home  its  attack  upon  the  corpuscles  of 
the  blood  with  tremendous  energy.  One  could  scarcely 
believe  that  the  eye  was  following  the  movements  of  an 
organism  which  under  natural  circumstances  is  beyond 
the  scope  of  that  organ.  One  had  the  sensation  of  gazing 
into  a  pond,  where  the  spawn  of  the  frog  was  in  course  of 
incubation,  with  specimens  of  the  reptile  in  its  first  stages, 
darting  hither  and  thither  through  the  water. 

Dr.  Comandon  introduced  the  spectator  to  still  greater 
wonders  in  the  under  world.  One  may  see  in  movement 
on  the  screen  a  drop  of  blood  such  as  courses  through 
one's  own  body.  There  are  the  red  corpuscles,  or  cells 
of  circular  shape  as  large  as  saucers,  and  some  are  to  be 
seen  piled  upon  one  another  like  coins.  The  extent  of  the 
magnification  in  this  film  may  be  seen  when  it  is  borne  in 
mind  that  a  cubic  space  measuring  Towcim  of  an  inch 
contains  some  5,000,000  and  6,000  red  and  white  blood  cells 
respectively. 

But  the  most  fascinating  spectacle  to  which  we  have  been 
introduced  by  Dr.  Comandon  is  the  attack  of  the  parasites 
upon  the  blood  corpuscles,  and  the  defensive  tactics 
followed  by  the  latter.  There  is  one  film  showing  blood 
infected  with  the  trypanosome,  discovered  by  Sir  David 
Bruce,  who  was  dispatched  to  Uganda  by  the  Royal 
Society  to  investigate  sleeping  sickness.  This  malady 
is  communicated  by  a  species  of  the  Tsetse-fly,  which 
wreaks  tremendous  devastation  among  herds  of  cattle  and 
horses  in  South  Africa.  For  the  purpose  of  this  film  Dr. 
Comandon  inoculated  a  mouse  with  the  parasite,  and  by 
the  aid  of  the  micro-cinematograph  he  shows  the  action  of 
the  disease  germ  through  successive  stages  until  the  animal 
succumbs. 


xiv  MOVING  PICTURES  OF  MICROBES  167 

In  the  early  part  of  the  film  the  parasites  are  few  in 
number;  they  are  seen  to  dart  to  and  fro  among  the  blood 
cells  with  striking  vigour  and  rapidity,  jostling  the 
corpuscles  violently  in  all  directions,  and  causing  them  to 
bounce  against  one  another  like  india-rubber  balls.  As 
the  film  advances,  showing  the  progress  of  the  disease, 
the  parasites  are  to  be  seen  increasing  rapidly  in  number. 
At  last  they  appear  to  overwhelm  the  blood  corpuscles,  this 
multiplication  continuing  until  death  supervenes  some  four 
or  five  days  after  injection.  The  film  was  shown  lately 
before  a  gathering  of  medical  men,  and  created  wide- 
spread interest,  as  it  introduced  them  to  a  phase  in  the  life 
of  the  parasite  which  hitherto  had  been  beyond  their 
comprehension. 

Another  film  shows  the  "phenomenon  of  agglutination." 
The  white  cells  of  the  blood  act  as  the  policemen  of  the 
stream  and  maintain  a  vigilant  outlook  for  criminals  in 
the  form  of  parasites.  When  the  microbe  offenders  come 
within  the  strong  arms,  or  embrace,  of  this  guardian, 
either  they  are  seized,  or  serum  substances  are  thrown  out 
by  the  white  corpuscles,  which  agglutinate,  kill,  and 
dissolve  these  enemies. 

The  film  shows  the  blood  of  a  fowl  infected  with  spiro- 
chetes. In  the  first  instance,  the  microbes  are  to  be  seen 
swimming  about  actively  in  the  plasma — the  liquid  in 
which  the  red  and  white  corpuscles  are  held.  The  bird 
is  recovering  from  the  malady ;  one  sees  the  white  cells 
engaged  in  their  task  of  restoring  law  and  order  in  the 
blood  stream.  The  spirochetes  commence  to  congregate, 
become  sluggish  in  their  movements,  forming  first  strings, 
and  then  star-shaped  groups.  The  white  cell  appears  on 
the  scene,  and  these  enemies  gather  round  him  in  a  dense 
clump.  The  policeman  grasps  them  in  a  sticky  embrace 
from  which  they  cannot  escape,  and  in  a  short  time  all 
the  spirochetes  have  joined  one  or  other  of  the  gatherings 
about  a  policeman.  The  latter  continues  to  throw  out  the 
agglutinate,  which  locks  the  enemies  as  tightly  together 
as  if  they  were  handcuffed.  At  first  they  wriggle  and 
endeavour  to  escape,  but  the  white  blood  cell  is  too  power- 


168  MOVING   PICTURES  ch.  xiv 

ful.  Their  struggles  become  weaker  and  weaker  until  at 
last  they  cease.  The  policeman  completes  his  victory  by 
devouring  the  corpses. 

One  must  see  these  pictures  in  animation  upon  the 
screen  to  observe  the  wonderful  definition,  detail,  and 
brilliancy  which  they  reveal.  The  magnification  is 
immense — the  thousandth  part  of  an  inch  is  increased  to 
three  feet  or  more.  When  the  picture  on  the  screen 
measures  some  16  feet  in  width,  the  organism  is  magnified 
as  much  as  50,000  or  possibly  100,000  times;  a  flea  is  so 
increased  in  size  that  it  represents  a  fearful  prehistoric 
monster  as  large  as  an  ordinary  dwelling  house.  A  mag- 
nification of  100,000  times  the  diameter  of  the  original, 
however,  by  no  means  indicates  the  limits  of  the  eminent 
French  investigator's  work.  When  the  necessity  arises, 
the  enlargement  can  be  carried  to  a  far  greater  degree 
without  any  sacrifice  of  essential  details. 

Dr.  Comandon's  dogged  perseverance  in  the  face  of 
disappointments  has  been  crowned  with  complete  success. 
Micro-cinematography  is  on  the  threshold  of  a  vast  field 
in  which  it  has  tremendous  opportunities,  the  limits  of 
which  it  is  impossible  to  define. 


CHAPTER    XV 

SOME  ELABORATE    PICTURE   PLAYS   AND    HOW    THEY  WERE 

STAGED 

The  first  large  film  production,  "The  Passion  Play," 
running  to  3,000  feet,  made  its  appearance,  as  we  have 
seen,  as  far  back  as  1897 — the  result  of  unquenchable 
American  ambition  to  be  first  in  every  field.  It  proved  an 
amazing  success ;  but  it  was  regarded  with  greater  favour 
by  the  public  than  by  the  manufacturers.  They  all 
acknowledged  it  to  be  a  wonderful  piece  of  work,  but  the 
prevailing  opinion  was  that  the  public  would  tire  of  a 
picture  lasting  nearly  an  hour,  and  monopolising  the  greater 
part  of  the  entertainment. 

Moreover,  such  films  were  considered  to  be  too  specula- 
tive. The  expense  of  staging  them  upon  a  scale  suited  to 
their  length  and  importance  was  so  heavy  that  the  film- 
producers  doubted  whether  the  sales  would  be  adequate  to 
recoup  the  initial  outlay.  That  fallacy,  however,  has 
been  completely  exploded.  What  was  a  marvel  in 
1897  is  to-day  a  commonplace.  The  "Big  Picture  Play  "  is 
as  much  part  and  parcel  of  the  cinematograph  industry  as 
the  spectacular  stage  play  is  of  the  legitimate  theatre. 

The  movement  was  established  and  developed  by  the 
firm  of  Pathe"  Freres.  Having  fixed  their  popularity  upon 
a  firm  basis  and  developed  their  organisation  to  a  high 
pitch  of  efficiency  and  resource,  they  decided  to  launch 
out  upon  a  large  scale  into  the  new  field.  Striking  histori- 
cal subjects,  especially  of  the  French  revolutionary  period, 
offered  them  the  greatest  scope  for  gorgeous  mounting ; 

they    had  some  apprehension   about    the    attitude    of  the 

169 


170  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

public  toward  such  subjects,  but  their  anxiety  was  quickly 
dissipated,  partly,  no  doubt,  because  the  plays  were  carried 
through  with  a  vigour  and  sustained  interest  that  defied 
the  possibility  of  boredom. 

French  history  has  been  a  rich  mine  to  the  picture-play 
producer.  The  Reign  of  Terror  and  the  Life  and  Times  of 
Napoleon  are  the  melodramatic  episodes  which  offer  such 
peculiar  scope  to  the  film  play.  They  make  an  appeal  to 
popular  sentiment,  especially  to  the  French  audience ;  the 
incidents  in  the  career  of  the  Little  Corporal  never  failing 
to  strike  a  strong  emotional  chord. 

Such  productions  impose  great  responsibilities  upon  the 
producer,  and  demand  a  mastery  of  stage-craft,  both  in 
mounting  the  scenes  and  in  handling  the  necessarily  large 
companies  of  actors  and  actresses.  There  can  be  no  con- 
sideration of  expense ;  money  must  be  poured  out  like 
water.  Weeks  and  even  months  must  be  expended  upon 
preliminaries ;  in  order  to  achieve  realism  as  many  as 
possible  of  the  scenes  must  be  enacted  in  their  natural 
surroundings,  or  else  research  must  be  carried  out  in  order 
to  stage  the  action  with  absolute  fidelity — an  exacting  task, 
for  the  public  is  hypercritical. 

In  the  first  attempts  the  management  of  the  crowds  was 
perhaps  the  most  troublesome  factor.  Large  bodies  of 
supernumeraries  were  enrolled,  many  possessed  of  stage 
experience.  They  had  to  be  marshalled  and  put  through 
their  paces  time  after  time,  first  without  the  principals,  and 
then  with  them.  Often  days  elapsed  before  the  incidents 
in  a  scene  dove-tailed  tightly  together,  but  the  patience 
and  perseverance  of  the  manager  were  rewarded.  Such 
scenes  as  the  execution  of  Charlotte  Corday,  or  the 
arraignment  of  the  aristocrats  before  the  Tribunal  of 
Robespierre  when  thrown  upon  the  screen  stirred  public 
enthusiasm  to  an  extravagant  degree. 

From  the  perfect  manner  in  which  the  French  producers 
carried  out  this  peculiar  work,  films  of  French  origin 
attained  a  well-deserved  world-wide  appreciation.  At  first 
the  American  trade  ridiculed  the  idea,  maintaining  that  the 


xv  SOME  ELABORATE   PICTURE   PLAYS         171 

heavy  expense  attending  the  production  of  elaborate  film 
plays  never  could  be  recouped,  and  that  the  movement  was 
purely  ephemeral.  But  their  contentions  were  doomed  to 
disappointment.  The  cinema-loving  public  received  films 
of  this  character  with  open  arms  :  they  were  a  welcome 
relief  to  the  tawTdry  domestic  drama  or  comedy  with  the 
thread-bare  plot,  and,  in  which,  perhaps,  only  half-a-dozen 
or  so  players  participated.  Accordingly  the  American 
producers  were  forced  to  embrace  the  movement,  though 
somewhat  tardily.  They  made  striking  headway,  but  the 
most  elaborate  American  film  productions  never  have  com- 
pared with  those  of  European  origin,  although  such  firms 
as  the  Edison,  Selig,  Vitagraph,  the  American  Biograph, 
Kalem,  Lubin,  and  one  or  two  other  companies  have  been 
responsible  for  many  notable  achievements.  Technically 
their  films  are  in  every  way  equal  to  the  product  of  the 
leading  European  manufacturers. 

The  Vitagraph  production  of  "A  Tale  of  Two  Cities" 
is  a  splendid  example  of  the  best  American  work.  It  tells 
Dickens's  story  in  three  chapters,  otherwise  three  reels, 
and  from  every  point  of  view — photographic,  staging, 
and  acting — it  is  an  excellent  production.  By  the  time 
the  3,000  feet  containing  48,000  pictures  reached  the  public 
,£4,000  ($20,000)  had  been  expended,  while  the  preparations 
for  staging  occupied  no  less  than  three  months.  Curiously 
enough,  although  the  Americans  are  keen  admirers  of  the 
novelist  who  taught  us  how  to  laugh  and  cry,  the  demand 
for  this  film  came  from  Europe,  and  it  is  in  Europe  that 
it  has  met  with  its  greatest  success.  Within  two  or  three 
weeks  of  its  appearance  over  300,000  feet  of  this  film 
were  sold  in  London  alone. 

The  same  firm  produced  another  wonderful  play  on  the 
life  of  Napoleon.  Mr.  Stuart  Blackton  spent  three  months 
in  France  searching  records  and  archives  to  secure  unim- 
peachable historical  accuracy  of  details.  The  country 
was  ransacked  also  for  furniture  of  the  period,  and  for 
the  staging  of  the  interior  scenes.  No  less  than  ,£6,000 
($30,000)  were  sunk   in  this  enterprise. 


1 72  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

Another  American  producer  who  has  achieved  world-wide 
fame  from  the  striking  and  expensive  character  of  his  films, 
is  Mr.  William  N.  Selig.  His  studios  are  located  in 
Chicago  and  California,  while  other  studios  are  extem- 
porised from  time  to  time  in  other  parts  of  the  country. 
Mr.  Selig's  name  is  most  intimately  associated  with  daring 
and  elaborate  productions  associated  with  life  in  the  jungle, 
and  some  of  his  plays  of  this  character  have  been  amazing. 
He  may  be  said  to  be  the  father  of  this  type  of  picture- 
play.  It  was  an  ingenious  idea  and  he  has  carried  it  to 
perfection.  When  he  decided  to  exploit  this  untouched 
field  he  concluded  rightly  that  unless  the  subjects  were 
handled  comprehensively  and  realistically  the  results  would 
be  indifferent,  so  his  first  move  was  the  acquisition  of  an 
elaborate  menagerie.  This  was  one  of  the  most  difficult 
proposals,  inasmuch  as  menageries  are  not  to  be  purchased 
at  a  moment's  notice,  because  the  market  therefor  is,  to 
say  the  least,  extremely  limited.  Fortune  assisted  his 
resolve.  The  opportunity  to  purchase  a  collection  of  wild 
animals,  complete  enough  to  do  credit  to  a  large  city,  arose, 
and  he  grasped  it.  The  purchase  comprised  12  lions  and 
lionesses,  9  lion  cubs,  elephants,  3   camels,    10  leopards, 

7  leopard  cubs,  5  pumas,  3  bears,  2  deer,  10  eskimo  dogs, 

8  grey  wolves,  as  well  as  monkeys  and  other  animals.  As 
an  investment  this  menagerie  represented  several  thousands 
sterling.  This  zoo  has  its  home  at  Chicago,  special 
arrangements  having  been  completed,  at  enormous  expense, 
for  its  accommodation  under  the  most  perfect  conditions. 
From  time  to  time  additions  are  made  to  the  collection, 
until  at  the  present  day  the  zoo  is  about  twice  its  original 
size. 

The  next  matter  in  hand  was  the  selection  of  the  jungle. 
Would  it  be  necessary  to  transport  the  actors  and  actresses, 
human  and  otherwise,  to  Africa  in  order  to  secure  the 
natural  surroundings?  It  was  decided  that  Florida  would 
suit  just  as  well,  because  the  flora  near  the  coast  is  similar 
to  that  of  some  parts  of  the  African  jungle.  The 
menagerie,   together  with   the   stock  company  of  30  per- 


The  gigantic  horse  being  hauled  by  t.l 


ider  the  walls  of  Troy. 


"tiik  fall  of  troy. 

The  repulsion  of  the  Greeks.     Over  800  actors  appeared  in  this  scene. 
An  ambitious  film  produced  by  the  Itala  Company. — See  page  17;. 


xv  SOME  ELABORATE  PICTURE  PLAYS  173 

formers,  as  well  as  supernumeraries,  travelled  by  special 
train  from  Chicago  to  Florida,  a  journey  of  several  hundred 
miles.  As  African  natives  were  impossible,  Florida 
negroes  were  employed. 

The  production  of  the  plays  was  naturally  a  thrilling 
affair,  and  many  unexpected  scenes  were  recorded.  The 
animals  were  under  the  care  of  experienced  trainers,  but 
there  was  an  occasional  reversion  to  original  habits  under 
the  influence  of  the  familiar  environment.  In  one  scene 
the  heroine  was  supposed  to  have  lost  herself  in  the  dense 
bush,  and  to  sink  down  from  sheer  fatigue.  A  leopard  was 
to  rush  from  the  brush  to  spring  upon  her  prostrate  form. 
The  scene  was  rehearsed  time  after  time  to  secure  the 
requisite  dramatic  effect ;  the  operator  was  to  stop  the 
camera  when  the  leopard  was  in  the  air  springing  towards 
the  girl. 

But  when  the  picture  was  being  taken  the  heroine  did 
not  accept  her  cue  with  sufficient  alacrity.  She  was  late 
in  falling,  and  the  leopard  arriving  exactly  on  his  cue 
caught  her  in  the  act.  The  woman  had  the  presence  of 
mind  to  bury  her  face  in  her  hands,  but  the  animal's  claws 
dug  into  her  scalp.  Had  she  made  a  movement,  the  leopard 
would  have  mauled  her  terribly,  but  she  kept  still,  and 
when  the  trainer  cracked  his  whip  the  animal  scuttled  off 
according  to  pre-arrangement.  It  was  a  narrow  escape, 
but  it  gave  the  film  a  touch  of  vivid  reality. 

In  another  picture  the  heroine  was  protected  by  two 
tame  leopards  who  mounted  guard  over  her  dwelling.  The 
scene  represented  an  attack  upon  her  by  a  fierce  lioness. 
The  girl  released  her  two  leopards,  and  a  terrific  animal 
combat  was  the  result.  The  beasts  took  the  matter 
seriously,  and  fought  until  the  lioness  was  killed  by  the 
two  leopards.  During  the  fray  the  operator,  but  a  short 
distance  away,  kept  the  camera  handle  turning  as  uncon- 
cernedly as  if  the  battling  beasts  were  in  a  cage.  Surely 
such  an  unusual  spectacle  is  sufficient  to  meet  the  most 
querulous  demands  of  the  public  for  realism  ! 

From  the  tropical  jungle  with  its  dense  vegetation,   to 


174  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

the  Arctic  circles  with  its  monotonous  wastes  of  snow  and 
ice,  is  a  far  cry,  but  the  Selig  company  dispatched  its 
company  northward  to  secure  another  powerful  film  play. 
The  plot  was  slender,  but  the  scenes  portrayed  the  life  of 
the  frozen  north  with  great  fidelity  and  vigour,  showing 
the  Eskimo  fishing  through  the  ice,  and  hunting  the  polar 
bear  and  walrus  by  his  primitive  methods.  A  valuable 
polar  bear  was  sacrificed  to  the  desire  for  realism.  The 
Jungle  play  has  become  a  speciality  of  the  house  of  Selig, 
and  owing  to  the  manner  in  which  the  subjects  are  handled, 
giving  no  offence  to  humanitarian  or  animal-loving  feelings, 
they  have  proved  unparalleled  favourites  with  the  public. 
It  is  hard  to  estimate  the  educational  service  of  scenes 
like  these  in  broadening  the  outlook  of  an  untravelled, 
perhaps  unlettered,  audience.  And  what  they  must  con- 
tribute to  the  expanding  imagination  of  the  child,  one 
would  need  to  be  a  child  again  to  know  ! 

In  the  United  States  there  are  many  theatres  which  can 
show  bigger  receipts  at  the  box  office  from  the  presentation 
of  moving  pictures  than  from  the  staging  of  a  play.  Why 
are  many  of  the  foremost  producers  of  stage  plays  for- 
saking the  "legitimate  theatre"  to  produce  film  plays,  if 
not  because  they  recognise  the  future  of  the  latter  and  the 
scope  offered  for  their  technical  ability. 

Perhaps  at  this  point  I  may  be  permitted  to  tell  the  story 
of  the  cinematograph  in  Italy,  since  its  success  there  is 
phenomenal  in  its  completeness.  Less  than  ten  years  ago 
the  cinematograph  was  scarcely  a  feature  of  the  Italian 
amusement  world.  It  suffered  from  the  hostility  of  the 
theatres,  and  there  was  but  meagre  enterprise  enlisted  in  it. 
The  example  of  other  countries  gradually  caused  increased 
popular  demand,  which  was  at  first  satisfied  by  French 
films.  Then  the  Italians  saw  their  opportunity,  money  and 
talent  came  to  the  service  of  the  new  development,  and  the 
languishing  enterprise  not  only  came  to  rank  among  the 
largest  of  Italian  industries,  but  introduced  its  own  wares 
with  great  success  into  other  countries.  There  seems  good 
ground  for  this  state  of  things,  and  a  special  fitness  in  the 


xv  SOME  ELABORATE  PICTURE  PLAYS  175 

Italian  success.  The  average  Italian  is  artist  by  tempera- 
ment and  a  born  actor ;  the  Italian  stage  has  long  been 
famous  for  technique  and  stage-craft ;  and  these  factors, 
with  the  clear  atmosphere,  brilliant  sun,  and  picturesque 
landscape,  make  Italy  the  natural  home  of  the  highest 
success  in  cinematograph  production.  Financially  also  the 
Italian  producers  had  an  advantage  over  all  competitors. 
Luxurious  picture  plays  could  be  staged  in  Italy  for  half 
the  cost  they  have  entailed  in  France,  England,  or  America. 
A  French  producer  informed  me  that  supernumeraries  alone 
cost  him  from  10s.  6d.  to  18s.  ($2  to  $4.50)  a  day,  and  that 
the  salaries  of  the  principals  were  rising  to  high  figures.  In 
Italy  the  remuneration  was  less  than  one-half.  But  as  time 
progressed  the  Italian  supernumerary  realised  his  value. 
He  demanded  recompense  upon  the  scale  of  his  French 
colleague,  and  to-day  is  in  receipt  of  remuneration  upon  a 
similar  scale.  But  the  early  financial  advantage  facilitated 
the  firm  foundation  of  the  producing  industry  in  Italy,  and 
it  still  ranks  as  the  premier  country  for  "Big  Picture 
Plays,"  the  high  cost  of  such  works  notwithstanding. 

In  this  development  the  Cines  Societa  Italiana  has  played 
a  prominent  part.  It  had  long  been  established  in  Rome, 
but  its  efforts  were  purely  conventional.  In  1908  new 
blood  was  infused  into  the  undertaking,  and  its  first 
ambitious  effort  was  the  pictorial  representation  of 
Alexander  Dumas'  famous  novel,  "The  Three  Musketeers," 
which  lent  itself  admirably  to  handsome  mounting,  and 
fine  acting  in  pantomime.  The  film  ran  to  1,500  feet.  It 
made  an  instant  success.  In  Great  Britain  alone  over  50 
copies  of  the  film  found  an  immediate  sale,  and  a  far  greater 
number  in  Italy,  France,  Germany,  and  Russia.  In 
Australia  its  reception  was  particularly  enthusiastic.  Other 
most  successful  presentations  were  "Macbeth,"  which  cost 
,£2,000  ($10,000)  to  produce,  Shakespeare's  tragedy  being- 
condensed  into  23,360  pictures,  occupying  1,460  feet  of 
film;  "The  Triumphant  Hero,"  "Faust,"  "The  Sacking  of 
Rome,"  "  Agrippina,"  and  so  on.  Its  greatest  triumph  was 
the  film  version  of  "Quo  Vadis?  "     This  film  ranks  as  the 


176  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

biggest  success  ever  known  in  the  cinema  world.  It  built 
the  fortunes  of  several  showmen;  in  fact,  one  man  made  a 
round  ,£50,000  ($250,000)  therefrom  in  less  than  a  year. 

One  might  be  inclined  to  suppose  that  some  of  the  fore- 
going subjects  were  somewhat  beyond  British  taste,  but 
their  success  here  has  proved  otherwise.  As  many  as  80 
copies  of  one  of  these  big  films  have  been  sold  in  Great 
Britain  alone,  the  total  output  for  the  world  aggregating 
some  400  copies. 

The  experience  of  the  Cines  Company  appears  to  confirm 
the  theory  that  historical  subjects  make  the  strongest 
appeal.  The  public  is  fairly  well  acquainted  with  the  mile- 
stones in  European  history,  particularly  those  in  connection 
with  the  rise  and  fall  of  Rome.  Moreover,  Italy  is 
especially  rich  in  beautiful  landscape  and  historical  sites, 
where  the  scenes  can  be  re-enacted  in  their  original  setting 
— an  advantage  which  the  large  companies  realise  to  the 
uttermost. 

The  Cines  Company  is  to-day  one  of  the  largest  film- 
producing  establishments  in  the  world.  It  has  three 
studios  devoted  to  the  staging  of  picture-plays,  the  premises 
in  Rome  having  an  area  exceeding  128,000  square  feet. 
Everything  is  installed  upon  a  large  scale — 100,000  feet  of 
film  can  be  turned  out  every  day.  Six  new  subjects  of 
travel,  educational,  and  dramatic  interest  are  placed 
on  the  market  every  week.  The  big  productions,  however, 
entail  a  strong  element  of  risk.  The  first  difficulty  is  to 
select  a  subject  which  will  make  a  world-wide  appeal. 
When  the  negative  has  been  obtained  "sample"  positive 
prints  are  prepared  and  dispatched  to  the  great  cities. 
At  each  centre  the  firm  attracts  a  certain  number  of 
patrons — possibly  the  aggregate  of  the  first  order  may  be 
only  forty  copies.  Since  a  film  running  to  3,000  feet 
entails  an  outlay  of  £50  ($250)  on  the  part  of  the  renter, 
it  is  not  surprising  that  he  displays  caution  in  making  his 
purchases,  because  half-a-dozen  copies  of  varied  ordinary 
subjects  can  be  acquired  for  the  same  money,  with  the 
additional   advantage  that  the   risks   are   spread  over  six 


o    w 


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^ 


Building  the  scenery  in  a  Devonshire  hay  for  the  film  performance  of  "  Hamlet. 


I        J 


\By permission  of  the  Gaumont  Co.,  Ltd. 
SIR  HENRY   FORBES   ROBERTSON'S  APPEARANI  E   BE1  ORE  THE  MOVING   PICTURE  CAMERA. 
The  Ghost  scene  from  "  Hamlet." 
i  linematography  is  far  more  realistic  and  i  onvim  ing  for  this  Shakespearean  play  than  the  legitimate  theatre. 


xv  SOME  ELABORATE  PICTURE  PLAYS  177 

subjects  instead  of  being  centred  upon  one.  The  initial 
order  is  fulfilled,  and  should  the  venture  prove  popular,  a 
steady  stream  of  orders  may  be  expected  to  follow.  How- 
ever, the  producer  does  not  breathe  freely  until  the  two 
hundredth  copy  has  been  dispatched.  Should  the  play  fail 
to  please  the  public,  the  manufacturer  is  faced  with  a  heavy 
loss.  The  system  has  certain  drawbacks,  but  it  ensures  the 
showman  and  the  public  being  given  the  very  best  material, 
and  causes  very  keen  rivalry  among  the  producers  to  eclipse 
one  another's  efforts. 

There  are  certain  subjects,  however,  which  rarely  fail  of 
popular  success,  those  of  religious  interest  being  foremost 
in  the  group.  The  "Life  of  Christ"  was  possibly  the 
most  successful  venture  of  this  description.  It  cost  some 
,£2,000  to  stage.  There  were  thirty-nine  epochs,  divided 
into  four  parts,  and  ranging  from  the  "  Nativity  "  to  the 
"Crucifixion."  Over  3,000  feet  were  required  for  their  pre- 
sentation. The  film  was  largely  purchased  by  religious 
societies.  A  certain  "renter"  is  said  to  have  amassed 
,£30,000  from  this  single  film.  The  "Miracle,"  the  story  of 
"Cain  and  Abel,"  "The  Trial  of  Abraham's  Faith,"  "The 
Fall  of  Babylon,"  "Samson  and  Delilah,"  to  name  only  a 
few,  have  proved  powerful  magnets.  In  the  last-named  the 
great  scene  was  the  destruction  of  the  temple.  The  edifice 
was  built  of  cardboard,  and  when  Samson  bent  his  strength 
in  a  final  effort  upon  the  columns,  the  whole  structure  came 
crashing  to  the  ground. 

The  development  of  the  "  Big  Film  "  has  been  responsible 
for  a  new  movement  in  cinema  circles.  A  firm  which  sinks, 
say,  ,£10,000  ($50,000)  in  one  subject,  naturally  is  anxious 
to  recoup  this  outlay  with  all  possible  speed.  This  can  be 
accomplished  only  in  one  way — the  disposal  of  the  sole 
rights  for  each  country  exclusively  to  speculating  and  enter- 
prising individuals,  instead  of  by  the  slower  sale  of  copies 
in  the  open  market  to  renters.  It  was  not  difficult  to  carry 
out  operations  upon  the  new  basis.  Cinema  circles  teem 
with  bold  and  daring  spirits.  Unfortunately  the  develop- 
ment  of  this   principle   led   to   a   certain   degree   of   wild 

N 


178  MOVING   PICTURES  ch.  xv 

gambling.  Fancy  prices,  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  in- 
trinsic or  showing  value  of  the  films,  became  the  rage,  high 
water  mark  being  reached  with  an  Italian  version  of 
"Antony  and  Cleopatra,"  the  limited  rights  in  which  for  the 
British  Isles  alone  were  sold  for  about  ^8,000  ($40,000). 

Despite  the  antagonism  of  the  "renter,"  the  attitude  of 
the  public  is  distinctly  favourable  to  the  long  film.  Its 
production  in  Italy  is  being  carried  out  with  great  vigour. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

PICTURES  THAT  MOVE,  TALK,  AND  SING 

When  Edison  invented  the  "Kinetoscope,"  his  ambition 
was,  not  only  to  produce  movement  by  the  aid  of  pictures, 
but  sound  by  the  aid  of  the  phonograph.  But  it  proved 
a  hopeless  quest ;  and  accordingly  Edison  confined  his 
efforts  for  the  time  being  to  the  perfection  of  animated 
photography. 

In  an  earlier  chapter  I  have  described  some  devices  for 
imitating  sound.  In  this  chapter  I  am  speaking,  not  of 
imitation,  but  of  reproduction.  In  order  to  secure  perfect 
combination  of  movement  and  sound,  it  is  essential  to 
secure  absolute  synchronism  in  the  actuation  of  the  camera 
and  that  of  the  talking  machine.  This  was  Edison's 
insuperable  difficulty.  A  single  motor  was  utilised  for 
both  machines;  but  the  phonograph  was  easier  to  stop  and 
to  restart  than  the  camera,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  latter 
had  to  be  driven  at  sufficient  speed  to  secure  46  pictures 
per  second. 

The  moving  and  singing  picture  machine  known  as  the 
"Kinetograph,"  which  worked  upon  the  automatic  "nickel- 
in-the-slot "  principle,  had  a  very  brief  existence.  It  was 
placed  in  cigar  shops,  railway  stations,  and  other  con- 
venient public  places,  but  it  failed  to  interest  the  public, 
and  was  withdrawn  in  a  short  time. 

Yet  Edison  did  not  relinquish  his  original  plan.  He 
cherished  the  idea  that  combined  pictorial  and  audible 
records  were  feasible,  and  for  nineteen  years  he  devoted 
his  energies  to  the  consummation  of  the  task.  It  was  only 
a  short  time  ago  that  the  great  inventor  announced  that 

179  N    2 


180  MOVING  PICTURES  chap. 

he  had  succeeded  at  last.  In  the  meantime,  however,  he 
had  been  anticipated  by  industrious  and  energetic  experi- 
menters in  Europe. 

In  1908  an  attempt  to  produce  motion  and  sound  was  made 
commercially  with  the  "Cinephone."  The  solution  pre- 
sented in  this  apparatus  is  undoubtedly  novel,  but  the 
results  are  very  unsatisfactory,  and  its  success  is  dependent 
entirely  upon  the  skill  of  the  operator.  The  "Cinephone  " 
is  designed  to  accompany  the  motions  of  acting  with  the 
sounds  pertaining  thereto.  The  pictures  are  fitted  to  the 
talking  machine  records — that  is  to  say,  the  cinemato- 
grapher  merely  takes  a  gramophone  record  and  produces 
a  film  suitable  thereto.  Edison's  plan  was  far  more  com- 
prehensive. His  idea  was  to  prepare  the  phonographic 
record  at  the  same  time  as  the  film  pictures  were  made — for 
example,  while  a  football  or  baseball  match  was  being 
cinematographed,  the  phonograph  was  to  record  the 
applause,  cheers,  shouts — in  short,  make  as  complete  a 
record  for  the  ear  as  the  camera  did  for  the  eye. 

The  principle  governing  the  operation  of  the  Cinephone 
is  extremely  simple.  An  ordinary  talking  machine  is 
employed,  without  any  modification  beyond  the  addition 
of  a  small  box  with  a  governing  dial,  and  a  similar  dial 
in  the  pictures  upon  the  screen.  The  dial  in  each  instance 
is  fitted  with  a  revolving  hand,  similar  to  that  of  a  clock, 
and  all  that  the  operator  is  called  upon  to  do  is  to  keep  the 
respective  hands  in  relative  positions  by  the  manipulation 
of  the  projector. 

The  talking  machine  is  mounted  upon  a  baseboard, 
which  is  extended  in  front  a  sufficient  distance  to  carry  a 
small  box  the  front  face  of  which  is  fitted  with  the  dial. 
The  clock-like  hand  is  transparent,  and  when  an  electric 
lamp,  or  other  suitable  illuminant,  is  placed  within  the 
box,  it  becomes  illuminated,  so  that  its  rotation  may  be 
followed  easily.  The  circle  described  by  the  hand  is  indi- 
cated at  its  four  quarters  by  a  small  transparent  point, 
through  which  passes  the  light  from  within  the  box.  These 
four  spots  of  light  can  be  eclipsed  and  revealed  by  the 
movement  of  a  shutter  lever.     When  the  lights  appear  the 


xvi    PICTURES  THAT  MOVE,  TALK,  AND  SING    181 

operator  knows  that  the  talking  machine  is  ready.  The 
hand  of  the  rotating  dial  is  actuated  by  mechanism  driven 
by  the  motor  of  the  talking  machine,  through  a  horizontal 
spindle. 

In  the  bottom  left-hand  corner  of  each  picture  thrown 
on  the  screen  is  a  duplicate  of  the  talking  machine  dial. 
The  position  of  the  hand  on  each  successive  picture  varies 
correspondingly  with  that  on  the  gramophone,  because  in 
the  preparation  of  the  pictures  the  speaking  or  singing 
characters  have  accompanied  the  gramophone  with  their 
acting.  When  the  picture  is  shown  the  speed  of  projection 
gives  a  steady  forward  motion  to  the  hand  on  the  picture 
dial. 

When  the  apparatus  is  brought  into  play  in  the  moving 
picture  theatre  the  talking  machine  is  placed  on  the  stage 
in  such  a  way  that  its  illuminated  dial  is  visible  to  the 
cinematograph  operator.  The  latter's  duty  is  to  run  the 
film  through  the  machine  at  such  a  speed  that  the  position 
of  the  hand  on  the  picture  dial  keeps  step  with  that  of  the 
talking  machine  dial.  If  this  is  done  with  precision,  the 
action  in  the  picture  coincides  with  the  sounds  emitted 
from  the  talking  machine. 

This  apparatus  can  be  applied  to  any  type  of  projector 
without  any  preliminary  preparations  whatever,  and  the 
mechanism  of  the  latter  has  not  to  be  modified  or  touched 
in  any  way.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  there  are  grave 
defects.  Synchrony  between  picture  and  talking  machine 
is  dependent  upon  the  operator,  and  until  the  latter  has 
become  accustomed  to  the  combination,  the  results  are  dis- 
concerting. It  is  no  simple  matter  to  keep  the  hands  of 
the  two  dials  rotating  harmoniously.  When  the  film  lags 
behind  the  talking  machine,  a  pronounced  speeding  up  is 
requisite  to  bring  the  two  hands  into  synchrony.  The 
increased  work  thrown  upon  the  operator  is  also  far  from 
being  a  negligible  quantity.  He  has  to  watch  the  two 
dials  intently,  and  cannot  centre  his  mind  upon  the  pro- 
jector, as  he  should  be  free  to  do.  More  than  once  I  have 
seen  a  film  snap  under  the  strain  imposed  in  the  effort  to 
catch  up  with  the  talking   machine,  or  the  light  has  de- 


I  82 


MOVING   PICTURES 


CHAP. 


manded  attention,  and  the  result  has  been  far  from 
pleasing.  However,  the  appearance  of  the  "Cinephone" 
served  to  stimulate  inventive  effort  in  this  particular  field, 
and  proved  to  the  public  that  the  production  of  pictures 
that  talked  and  sang,  as  well  as  moved,  was  by  no  means 
so  forlorn  a  possibility  as  had  been  imagined  generally. 

The  next  attempt  in  the  same  direction  met  with  better 
success — in  the  "Vivaphone,"  perfected  by  the  Hepworth 
Manufacturing  Company,  Limited.  In  this  machine  the 
two  dials  were  eliminated  in  favour  of  a  single  electric 
control  or  synchroniser. 


Fig.  14. — The  Electrical  Synchronising  Attachment  to 
the  Talking  Machine  in  the  "Vivaphone." 


In  the  projecting  box  by  the  operator's  side  is  a  small, 
compact  case.  This  is  the  synchroniser,  consisting 
primarily  of  a  vertical  needle,  which  can  move  to  the  right 
or  to  the  left.  The  movement  or  deflection  of  this  needle 
is  effected  by  means  of  two  electromagnets.  One  exerts 
a  pull  upon  the  needle  towards  the  right,  while  the  other 
draws  it  in  the  opposite  direction.  These  two  electro- 
magnets are  electrically  connected  to  the  cinematograph 
and  to  the  talking  machine  respectively. 

The  attachments  to  the  projector  and  the  gramophone  are 
very  simple.    The  electrical  contact  device  or  commutator 


xvi    PICTURES  THAT  MOVE,  TALK,  AND  SING    183 


is  attached  to  the  handle  to  establish  connection  between 
the  two  parts  of  the  apparatus.  On  the  gramophone 
is  another  commutator  (Fig.  14).  It  consists  of  an 
arm,  one  edge  of  which  rests  on  the  case  of  the  talking 
machine,  while  the  opposite  end  engages  with  the  motor 
spindle  of  the  gramophone  projecting  vertically  through 
the  turn-table. 

The  installation  of  this  apparatus  (Fig.  15)  is  likewise 
simple.  The  synchroniser  A  is  placed  in  a  convenient 
position  in  the  operator's  box,  while  the  gramophone  B 
is  set  upon  the  stage.  From  the  projecting  handle  com- 
mutator C  a  pair  of  wires  are  run  and  attached  to  the  con- 
nections K  in  the  synchroniser,  while  similarly  a  pair  of 


C 


8  C 


Lite  tV/ce 


+  Y     -F 


Fig.   15. — The  Electrical  Wiring  System  of  the  "Vivaphone." 

wires  are  carried  from  the  talking  machine  commutator  to 
the  connections  G  in  the  synchroniser.  Two  wires  are  led 
from  the  terminals  B  in  the  synchroniser  to  the  battery  F. 
Sufficient  energy  for  the  electric  current  is  furnished  from 
a  4  or  6  volt  accumulator,  such  as  is  used  in  automobile 
practice,  or  from  a  dry  storage  battery.  Ordinary  bell  wire 
suffices  for  the  purposes  of  the  connections.  If  the  dis- 
tance between  the  screen  and  the  projecting  box  is  very 
great  it  is  advisable  to  introduce  an  auxiliary  cell  D  in  the 
gramophone  circuit. 

Behind  the  vertical  needle  of  the  synchroniser  is  a  narrow 
transparent  slot,  which,  when  the  synchrony  is  perfect,  is 
covered  by  the  needle  itself.  The  upper  end  of  the  needle 
is    fitted    with    two    small    glazed    apertures    or    spectacle 


1 84  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

glasses,  one  on  either  side,  fitted  with  red  and  green  glass 
respectively.     When  the  apparatus  is  in  use  the  two  electro- 
magnets controlled  by  the  cinematograph  and  the  gramo- 
phone respectively  exert  a  pull  in  opposite  directions — the 
gramophone  endeavours  to  draw  the  needle  one  way,  and 
the  projector  electromagnet  attempts  to  pull  it  in  the  other 
direction.     If  the  projector  is  lagging,  the  needle  moves 
over,  bringing  the  red  spectacle  before  the  light  aperture, 
and  the  red  light  thus  shown  warns  the  operator  to  acceler- 
ate the  projector.     On  the  other  hand,  if  the  projector  is 
running  too  fast,  the  needle  moves  in  the  opposite  direction 
and  brings  the  green  light  into  prominence.     The  degree 
of  the  deflection  of  the  needle  indicates  how  far  the  syn- 
chronisation is  disturbed.     When  the  opposing  forces  of 
the  electromagnets  are  exactly  equal,  the  needle  maintains 
a  vertical  position,  and  shows  absolute  synchrony.     It  will 
be  seen  that  the  signalling  system  is  very  sensitive  and 
accurate,  and  at  the  same  time  enables  the  operator  to  have 
complete  control  over  projection.     In  fact  this  is  the  most 
perfect  system  of  synchronising  the  pictures  with  the  sounds 
emitted  from  the  gramophone  that  has  been  yet  produced 
in  the  combination  of  sound  and  movement.     Some  excel- 
lent subjects  have  been  produced  with  this  machine,  one  of 
the  finest  being  the  sound  and  movement  reproduction  of 
"Faust." 

But,  after  all,  these  devices  are  far  from  representing  the 
ideal  singing  and  talking  cinematograph.  The  drawback 
is  this  :  the  conditions  prevent  the  pictures  being  secured  at 
the  same  moment  that  the  relative  sounds  are  being 
recorded  by  the  gramophone. 

While  Edison  was  striving  with  the  problem,  French 
investigators  were  active,  and  the  first  practical  success 
in  the  field  must  be  credited  to  Monsieur  Leon  Gaumont, 
the  head  of  the  French  cinematograph  establishment  of 
that  name.  He  succeeded  where  Edison  failed ;  or  rather, 
he  anticipated  the  famous  American  inventor  by  several 
years.  It  was  as  far  back  as  November  7th,  1902,  that 
Monsieur  Gaumont  introduced  his  achievement  for  the 
first  time  before  the  French   Photographic  Society.     The 


xvi    PICTURES  THAT  MOVE,  TALK,  AND  SING    185 

apparatus  was  not  yet  perfect,  but  it  served  to  demonstrate 
that  the  synchronous  production  of  sound  and  movement 
by  the  aid  of  the  cinematograph  and  the  talking  machine 
was  within  measurable  distance  of  attainment.  The 
demonstration  was  held  primarily  to  show  how  perfect  a 
synchronising  mechanism  had  been  evolved.  The  great 
difficulty  encountered  was  in  regard  to  the  sensitive  charac- 
ter of  the  material  required  for  taking  the  records  of  sounds 
from  a  distance.  The  ordinary  process  then  in  vogue  was 
far  from  being  suitable.  By  the  aid  of  several  interested 
friends  and  collaborators,  however,  Monsieur  Gaumont  was 
able  to  conquer  this  obstacle,  and  on  December  27th,  1910, 
the  "Chronophone,"  as  the  new  invention  is  called,  was 
submitted  to  the  approval  of  the  French  Academy  of 
Sciences  and  was  regarded  as  eminently  successful  by  that 
distinguished  learned  body. 

Synchronism — both  in  producing  and  reproducing — 
between  the  cinematograph  and  the  talking  machine  is 
secured  by  electrical  connections  between  motors  which 
furnish  the  requisite  power  for  driving  the  two  essential 
parts  of  the  apparatus.  In  evolving  such  a  combination  as 
this  the  inventor  had  to  bear  in  mind  that  portability  and 
simplicity  were  two  fundamental  requisitions,  so  that  resort 
to  heavy,  bulky,  and  intricate  mechanism  was  quite  out  of 
the  question.  In  comparison  with  the  Cinephone  and 
Vivaphone,  the  Chronophone  appears  somewhat  com- 
plicated. But  this  is  only  relative.  The  apparatus  is 
almost  entirely  automatic  in  its  operation.  Yet  it  can  be 
operated  by  hand  if  necessary.  If  the  latter  method  is 
adopted,  the  energy  required  to  secure  synchrony  is  derived 
from  batteries  or  accumulators. 

Synchrony  is  obtained  by  means  of  a  patented  system, 
which  may  be  briefly  described.  The  two  motors  required 
for  driving  the  talking  machine  and  the  cinematograph 
respectively  are  of  identical  design,  of  approximately  the 
same  power,  and  are  operated  by  the  same  direct  current. 
The  armatures  of  each  motor  are  divided  into  sections,  and 
the  corresponding  sections  of  the  two  armatures  are  con- 
nected together.     By  means  of  this  arrangement  the  two 


i86 


MOVING   PICTURES 


CHAP. 


armatures  are  rotated  at  the  same  speed,  notwithstanding 
the  slight  differences  in  the  mechanical  resistance  opposed 
to  the  machines. 

The  talking  machine,  driven  by  an  electric  motor,  is  of 
the  disc  type,  fitted  with  two  horns,  so  as  to  diffuse  the 
sounds  through  the  building.  If  the  theatre  is  spacious 
the  number  of  horns  may  be  increased,  while  the  sound 
waves  projected  into  the  hall  may  be  intensified  in  volume 
by  means  of  compressed  air,  as  in  the  Auxetophone  devised 
by  the  Hon.  C.  A.  Parsons,  which  is  also  capable  of  con- 
siderable  adjustment,  so   that  the   volume  of  sound  may 


Fig.   16. — The  Gaumont  "  Chronophone." 


be  accommodated  to  the  acoustic  properties  of  the  building. 

In  comparison  with  the  ordinary  bioscope  mechanism 
the  Chronophone  projector  appears  somewhat  intricate,  but 
here  again  everything  has  been  simplified  to  a  remarkable 
degree,  while  all  adjustments  are  carried  out  automatically. 
The  projector  installation  (Fig.  16),  in  addition  to  the 
lantern  A  and  projecting  mechanism  B  employed  in  the 
ordinary  equipment,  consists  of  a  small  motor  C,  which 
drives  the  projector  mechanism  proper  and  a  differential  D, 
whereby  error  between  sound  and  movement  is  corrected, 
driven  by  a  small  motor  E. 

To  start  the  apparatus,  the  first  picture  of  the  film,  say 


xvi    PICTURES  THAT  MOVE,  TALK,  AND  SING    187 

that  of  the  title,  is  placed  in  the  film  gate  before  the 
exposure  aperture,  and  the  needle  of  the  talking  machine 
sound  box  is  placed  on  the  first  groove  of  the  disc  record. 
The  talking  machine  motor  is  started,  and  the  table  carrying 
the  record  commences  to  revolve.  Directly  the  needle 
reaches  the  point  in  the  disc  groove  where  the  first  sound 
wave  has  been  recorded,  an  electrical  contact  is  established, 
which  is  transmitted  to  the  projector,  and  sets  the  latter 
in  motion.  But  it  may  be  that  the  speed  is  too  much  or 
not  enough ;  the  pictures  move  too  slowly  or  too  quickly, 
and  the  tone  of  the  sound  emitted  by  the  talking  machine 
is  unnatural.  In  this  case  the  operator  moves  the  rheostat 
handle  F  over  its  contacts,  this  movement  accelerating  both 
the  talking  machine  and  the  projector  until  the  correct 
natural  speed  has  been  secured. 

Again  it  may  be  that  the  pictures  are  slightly  in  advance 
of  the  phonograph,  or  vice  versa ;  the  movements  of  the 
lips  of  the  singer  or  actions  of  the  performer  do  not  coincide 
with  the  emission  of  sound.  This  error  may  be  rectified 
instantly.  There  is  a  two-way  commutator  on  the  control 
board,  which  the  operator  moves  in  one  direction  or  the 
other  according  to  requirements.  This  instantly  starts  up 
the  small  dynamo  E,  the  power  of  which  is  transmitted 
through  belt  and  pulley  to  the  differential  gearing  D,  which 
works  on  the  same  shaft  as  that  driving  the  projector. 
If  the  projector  is  lagging  it  is  speeded  up,  so  as  to  over- 
take the  talking  machine,  or  if  the  pictures  are  in  advance 
of  the  sound,  it  is  retarded  until  synchronism  is  restored. 
This  device  is  particularly  useful,  inasmuch  as  the  talking 
machine  is  somewhat  sensitive  to  outside  disturbance ;  if 
the  machine  is  not  set  quite  level,  or  receives  a  violent 
vibration,  the  needle  jumps  suddenly  from  one  groove  into 
another.  By  accelerating  the  projector  this  lead  can  soon 
be  reduced  without  touching  the  talking  machine  in  the 
slightest. 

The  operator  need  not  follow  the  movement  of  the 
pictures  upon  the  screen,  or  listen  to  the  talking  machine 
in  order  to  ascertain  that  synchrony  is  perfect.  He  merely 
keeps  his  eye  on  an   ingenious,   simple  "control  board," 


1 88  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

which  is  set  up  in  a  convenient  position  beside  the  pro- 
jector operator.  It  includes  a  starting  gear,  whereby 
the  talking  machine  is  set  in  motion,  and  which  in  turn 
actuates  the  cinematograph  by  the  disc  electrical  contact, 
an  electric  switch,  a  volt  meter,  which  acts  as  a  speed 
indicator,  its  readings,  in  fact,  having  a  constant  relation 
to  the  revolving  speed  of  the  talking  machine  turn-table; 
and  a  two-way  commutator,  where  the  differential  motor 
is  started  up. 

The  differential  gearing  is  somewhat  interesting.  It 
belongs  to  the  four-wheel  type.  There  are  two  driven 
cog  wheels  i  and  2  keyed  to  the  ends  of  the  interrupted 
shaft  of  the  projector  motor,  and  between  these  two  wheels, 
and  set  at  right  angles  thereto,  are  two  satellite  wheels  3 
and  4,  which  mesh  with  the  former  wheels.  If  the  cinema- 
tograph and  the  talking  machine  are  moving  in  exact 
synchrony,  the  wheels  1  and  2  run  at  similar  speed,  but 
in  opposite  directions,  and  in  harmony  with  wheels  3  and  4. 
To  the  short  end  of  the  interrupted  shaft  a  needle  is 
attached,  and  when  synchrony  is  prevailing  this  needle 
maintains  a  vertical  position.  Now,  if  the  phonograph 
runs  away  from  the  projector,  this  needle  moves  either  to 
the  right  or  to  the  left,  and  as  it  slides  over  a  graduated 
scale  the  operator  can  detect  in  an  instant  how  many  pic- 
tures the  projector  is  lagging  behind  the  talking  machine. 
The  cinematograph  projector  accordingly  must  be  speeded 
up,  and  the  operator  moves  the  commutator  on  his  control 
board  in  the  desired  direction.  Then  instead  of  the  two 
satellite  wheels  meshing  evenly  with  the  two  wheels  1  and 
2,  they  become  displaced,  with  the  result  that  the  shaft 
driving  the  projector  is  rotated  more  rapidly,  and  over- 
takes the  talking  machine,  the  needle  on  the  dial  mean- 
while moving  towards  zero,  until,  when  it  reaches  its 
vertical  position,  the  differential  gearing  and  its  motor  are 
stopped.  If  the  projector  should  have  advanced  before 
the  talking  machine,  it  is  retarded,  the  needle  deflecting 
in  the  opposite  direction  and  requiring  to  be  restored  to 
zero.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  speed  of  the  talking  machine 
remains  constant.     Any  correction  that  has  to  be  made  is 


xvi    PICTURES  THAT  MOVE,  TALK,  AND  SING     189 

effected  by  means  of  accelerating  or  retarding  the  speed  of 
projection. 

As,  however,  the  records  of  movement  and  sound  are 
made  in  synchrony,  and  in  view  of  the  fact  that  both  pro- 
jector and  talking  machine  run  at  the  same  speed,  if  started 
simultaneously  no  displacement  of  one  in  relation  to  the 
other  should  result.  The  differential,  however,  provides 
a  means  of  correcting  any  accidental  displacement  of  the 
phonograph  needle  when  reproduction  is  carried  out. 

The  Gaumont  apparatus  has  proved  highly  successful, 
and  has  been  turned  to  useful  account  already ;  we  have 
excerpts  from  operas,  ballets,  recitations,  and  so  forth 
recorded  and  projected  with  a  perfect  relationship  between 
sound  and  movement.  Through  the  energy  and  perse- 
verance of  Monsieur  Gaumont  the  value  of  animated 
pictures  has  received  a  decisive  forward  impetus. 

Edison  has  devoted  his  energies  in  the  solution  of  the 
problem  to  the  perfection  of  a  more  sensitive  material  than 
the  wax  hitherto  employed.  Naturally  he  has  confined  his 
attention  to  adapting  to  this  work  the  phonograph  or 
cylinder  talking  machine  in  preference  to  the  disc  machine, 
the  former  being  his  own  invention. 

What  is  the  future  of  the  phono-cinematograph  ?  In  the 
first  place,  until  the  peculiar  nasal  sound  is  eliminated 
from  the  talking  machine  it  will  not  prove  popular.  It  is 
well-nigh  impossible,  unless  a  speaker  or  singer  has 
peculiar  characteristics,  to  identify  voices  on  this  instru- 
ment. Furthermore  expression  in  tone  is  practically  non- 
existent. Though  the  cinematographic  world  be  flooded 
with  talking  and  singing  pictures,  unless  they  are  of  some 
peculiar  interest,  the  majority  of  picture-theatre  lovers, 
after  the  first  wave  of  excitement  and  curiosity,  will 
patronise  those  establishments  where  they  can  see  move- 
ment alone. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

POPULAR  SCIENCE  AS  REVEALED  BY  THE  CINEMATOGRAPH 

The  average  audience  before  the  micro-cinematographic 
film  is  very  much  in  the  attitude  of  the  schoolboy  in  the 
natural  history  lesson.  Scarcely  any  other  subject  holds 
such  possibilities  of  interest  for  him ;  yet  the  instruction 
must  be  given  in  some  vivifying  form,  or  it  fails  to  touch 
his  latent  sympathy,  and  becomes  a  tiresome  repetition  of 
formulae  and  inexplicable  processes.  Similarly  an 
audience  will  sit  absorbed  before  a  film  displaying  infini- 
tesimal organic  life;  but  only  on  condition  that  its  human 
instincts  are  in  some  way  appealed  to.  Science  lessons 
must  be  humanised,  when  they  rival  the  most  dramatic 
films  in  interest. 

Unfortunately  the  supply  of  this  kind  of  film  is  extremely 
limited.  Producers  are  not  convinced  of  the  heartiness  of 
the  demand ;  and  the  labour,  expense,  and  anxiety  attend- 
ing the  preparation  of  such  subjects  prevent  their  develop- 
ment upon  any  but  a  small  scale. 

An  account  has  been  given  of  Dr.  Comandon's  wonder- 
ful achievements  in  bacteriological  micro-cinematography, 
through  the  firm  of  Pathe  Freres.  In  popular  science  the 
world's  market  is  practically  supplied  by  an  English 
company,   Kineto,  Limited. 

This  fact  is  due  mainly  to  Mr.  F.  Percy  Smith,  who 

possesses  the  happy  faculty  of  investing  his  subjects  with 

a   quaint   fascination    which   compels   appreciation.     It   is 

doubtful  whether  any  film  has  stirred  popular  interest  so 

intensely  as  that  which  he  prepared  for  the  purpose  of 

illustrating  the  physical  energy  possessed  by  the  common 

house-fly. 

190 


ch.  xvn      SCIENCE   BY   CINEMATOGRAPH  191 

When  this  film  appeared  the  newspapers  far  and  wide 
associated  the  cinematographer  with  strange  powers,  and 
the  capacity  to  train  the  bluebottle  in  much  the  same  way 
as  the  lion  tamer  subdues  the  King  of  the  Forest.  Nothing 
was  farther  from  the  truth.  The  scientist  merely  devised 
unusual  and  novel  devices  to  illustrate  the  points  which  he 
had  in  mind,  and  the  fly  was  left  more  or  less  to  follow  its 
own  devices.  For  instance,  it  was  seen  to  walk  again  and 
again  up  the  rim  of  a  small  wheel  in  a  vain  effort  to  reach 
the  highest  point.  "Trickery  !  "  was  the  verdict  when  the 
film  was  seen  first,  and  it  was  hard  to  make  people  believe 
that  the  picture  was  genuine.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  fly 
performed  the  operation  quite  naturally,  though  in  order 
to  induce  it  to  do  so  the  experimenter  had  to  resort  to  an 
ingenious  device. 

A  dark  box  was  prepared  with  a  very  small  door  of  thin 
glass  at  one  end.  This  piece  of  glass  was  fitted  with  a 
narrow  slit  in  which  a  small  toothed  wheel,  similar  to  a 
watch  escapement  wheel,  was  fitted  in  such  a  way  as  to  be 
free  to  revolve.  The  imprisoned  fly,  seeing  the  daylight 
entering  through  the  glazed  end  of  the  box,  attempted  to 
escape  in  that  direction,  but  found  its  passage  obstructed 
by  the  glass.  When  it  struck  the  latter,  it  received  a  smart 
tap  on  the  head  from  a  tooth  in  the  wheel,  which  was 
caused  to  move  through  the  fly's  frantic  efforts.  Time 
after  time  the  fly  threw  itself  against  the  glass  door,  and 
on  every  occasion  it  received  a  rap  on  the  head.  At  last 
frenzy  gave  way  to  tractability,  and  it  came  to  the  con- 
clusion that  the  best  means  of  escape  was  by  walking  up 
the  wheel.  Of  course,  as  it  advanced  the  wheel  slipped 
round  in  the  opposite  direction.  While  the  insect  was 
walking  like  a  criminal  on  a  treadmill,  the  pictures  were 
taken. 

The  results  with  the  fly  under  restraint,  however,  were 
not  entirely  satisfactory,  so  the  experimenter  set  up  the 
wheel  in  the  open,  and  withdrew  a  fly  from  its  prison  after 
it  had  become  tractable.  Time  after  time  the  blue-bottle 
would  fly  away  directly  it  was  placed  on  the  wheel.  The 
camera,  however,  was  kept  in  readiness  for  exposure  the 


i92  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

moment  a  fly  did  attempt  to  walk  along  the  rim,  and  at 
length  it  was  successfully  caught  in  the  act.  Again,  the 
fly  was  laid  upon  its  back  beneath  the  wheel,  and  was  seen 
to  revolve  the  disc  with  its  legs.  The  simple  explanation 
of  this  seemingly  clever  juggling  trick  was  that  the  fly 
thought  it  was  walking  in  the  same  way  that  it  walks  up 
a   wall    or   along   the   ceiling. 

One  fly  in  the  same  film  was  seen  seated  in  a  diminutive 
chair  nursing  a  smaller  fly,  or  balancing  and  juggling  with 
articles  such  as  tiny  dumb-bells,  but  of  large  size  in 
comparison  with  its  own  bulk.  In  this  instance  the  fly 
was  secured  by  a  thin  strand  of  silk  passed  around  its 
body;  but  here  again,  in  performing  the  apparent  juggling 
feats,  it  was  merely  following  its  instinct.  Being  pre- 
vented from  flying,  it  naturally  endeavoured  to  make 
progress  by  walking. 

The  fly  was  to  be  seen  endeavouring  to  balance  a  piece 
of  cork,  and  intense  amusement  was  caused  when  it  was 
seen  to  wipe  its  feet,  in  the  same  way  that  a  man  rubs  his 
hands  together,  preparatory  to  making  some  kind  of  effort. 
In  reality,  the  fly  found  that  the  suckers  on  its  feet,  by 
means  of  which  it  secures  a  grip  upon  a  surface  when 
walking  upside  down,  were  somewhat  dusty.  The 
apparent  preparation  for  a  herculean  attempt  was  nothing 
more  than  the  fly  cleaning  its  organs  to  achieve  its 
purpose. 

This  film  occupied  several  weeks  in  preparation.  Ex- 
treme patience  had  to  be  exercised,  and  when  a  desired 
phase  of  movement  had  been  secured,  often  it  was  found 
defective  from  the  technical  point  of  view,  so  that  the 
wearying  round  had  to  be  repeated.  Recently  Mr.  Smith 
has  continued  his  investigations,  and  has  produced  another 
fascinating  film,  demonstrating  still  more  clearly  the 
tremendous  physical  energy  possessed  by  the  bluebottle, 
and  the  wonderful  powers  of  its  proboscis,  the  movements 
of  which,  to  assist  the  legs,  are  shown  very  distinctly. 

Another  of  Mr.  Smith's  achievements  is  the  film  show- 
ing the  hatching  of  a  chicken's  egg.  The  period  of 
incubation  is  extended  over  21  days — about  500  hours — and 


MATURE   AND   Till:    I  INEMATOGRAPHER— MR.    PERCY   SMITH    AT   WORK. 


(iieat    Britain    lias    taken    the  lead  in  bringing    i lie    wonders    of  science    popularly    before 
the  public— See  page  190. 


I  IV    SEATED    IN    A    DIMINUTIVE   <HAIK    BALANCING     \    CORK. 


AN    UNFAMILIAR   JUGGLER-    BLUEBOTTLE    BALANCING    A    PIECE   OF 
VEGE1  ABLE    -1  \I  k*. 


xvii  SCIENCE   BY   CINEMATOGRAPH  193 

the  egg  naturally  has  to  be  preserved  at  an  even  tem- 
perature the  whole  time,  so  some  special  means  had  to  be 
devised  to  make  the  film  without  imperilling  the  life  of  the 
embryo.  The  opaqueness  of  the  shell  constituted  a 
formidable  stumbling-block.  Moreover,  in  the  initial 
stages  the  embryo  is  so  small,  and  its  movement  so  slight, 
that  little  difference  is  observable  for  the  first  50  hours  or 
more.  Direct  photography  was  seen  to  be  out  of  the 
question. 

An  incubator  was  acquired,  and  the  eggs  were  placed  in 
it.  At  regular  and  frequent  intervals  during  the  incuba- 
tion, some  were  withdrawn,  and  opened  to  ascertain  the 
size  and  position  of  the  embryo. 

From  these  data  diagrams  of  the  early  stages  were  pre- 
pared. They  were  drawn  carefully  to  scale  and  accurate  in 
every  detail.  This  task  had  to  be  continued  during  the 
first  54  hours — the  period  when  the  movements  of  the 
embryo  were  unknown — and  involved  the  preparation  of 
no  fewer  than  1,000  diagrams,  prepared  in  such  a  way  that 
they  resembled  photographs.  From  the  number  of  these 
records  and  the  period  occupied  in  incubation,  it  will  be 
seen  that  they  were  prepared  at  intervals  of  about  three 
minutes  during  both  day  and  night.  This  consecutive 
series  were  then  cinematographed  upon  the  film,  and  thus 
a  natural  development  lasting  i\  days  was  reduced  to  a 
period  of  about  one  minute  upon  the  screen. 

The  early  part  of  the  film  is  not  so  interesting  to  the 
public  as  that  showing  the  chick  coming  out  of  the  shell. 
Here  again  an  initial  difficulty  was  encountered.  The 
hatching,  of  course,  could  not  be  cinematographed  inside 
the  incubator;  and  to  remove  the  egg  from  the  temperature 
of  1030  in  which  it  had  been  kept  was  to  arrest  the  process 
at  once. 

Fortunately  the  experiment  was  being  made  in  summer, 
and  the  thermometer  read  1030  in  the  sun.  The  camera 
was  set  up,  and  at  the  moment  the  chick  gave  signs  of 
breaking  through  its  shell,  the  egg  was  removed  from  the 
incubator  and  placed  upon  a  table  in  the  full  glare  and 
heat  of  the  sun.     In  a  few  seconds  the  chick  made  further 

o 


194  MOVING  PICTURES  chap. 

efforts  to  break  down  the  walls  of  its  prison,  and  very  soon 
made  the  first  breach  in  the  shell.  As  the  heat  of  the  sun 
was  exactly  that  of  the  incubator,  hatching  was  continued 
under  precisely  natural  conditions.  It  was  not  long  before 
the  hole  in  the  shell  was  widened  sufficiently  to  enable  the 
chick  to  wriggle  its  way  into  the  world.  From  the  cinema- 
tographic point  of  view,  the  hatch  was  as  perfect  as  could 
be  desired,  especially  as  the  chick  was  strong  and  active 
after  hatching. 

Mr.  Smith  once  ventured  into  the  Sussex  woods,  to 
obtain  some  animated  photographs  of  the  British  adder  in 
its  natural  haunts.  He  succeeded  in  tracking  down  an 
excellent  specimen,  of  which  some  first-rate  pictures  were 
taken.  Then  he  proceeded  to  record  on  the  film  the 
methods  by  which  this  reptile  may  be  caught  and  handled 
in  safety.  While  holding  a  large  specimen  in  his  hand 
he  provoked  it  to  fury,  and  caused  it  to  strike  out  savagely, 
so  as  to  secure  on  the  film  some  life-like  pictures  of  an 
adder  striking,  as  well  as  details  of  its  mouth  and  fangs. 
As  a  contrast,  he  then  decided  to  show  how  an  adder  should 
not  be  handled.  He  took  the  precaution  to  chloroform  the 
reptile  before  mis-handling  it,  but  the  snake  recovered  too 
soon  from  the  anaesthetic,  and  striking  out  with  its  fangs, 
caught  the  investigator  a  smart  blow  on  the  hand,  leaving 
two  minute  punctures.  The  bite  of  the  adder  is  seldom 
fatal,  but,  contrary  to  popular  belief,  it  is  far  from  harm- 
less, producing  delirium  and  precipitating  collapse, 
recovery  from  which  occupies  several  hours,  or  in  some 
cases  even  weeks,  as  Mr.  Smith  found  to  his  cost. 

An  unusually  successful  popular  science  film  is  the  one 
showing  the  development  of  a  flower  from  seed  to  blossom. 
It  has  been  encored  more  than  once  on  being  presented. 

The  average  plant  demands  several  weeks  from  seed  to 
blossom.  Mr.  Smith  made  an  ingenious  apparatus  for 
securing  a  continuous  representation  of  growth.  The  seed 
was  shown  first  in  the  initial  stages  until  the  embryo  burst 
from  the  protective  or  outer  shell  or  husk ;  and  then  con- 
tinuously from  the  moment  the  first  sign  of  the  shoot 
appeared  above  the  level  of  the  soil. 


|<  opyright^   Urban   Trading  Co.,  L  id. 


DEMONSTRATING    THE    PHYSICAL    ENERGY   OF   THE    II. V, 

Fly  lying  on  it-  back  spinning  a  wheel.  2.  Juggling  flies. 

3.  The  fly  walking  up  the  turning  wheel. 


^^g^H 


^Vlllllllllllll^pr 


>•    ■='- 


r  *  ■  . 


xvn  SCIENCE  BY  CINEMATOGRAPH  195 

The  camera  was  set  up  and  an  automatic  apparatus 
attached  thereto,  which  enabled  an  exposure  to  be  made 
at  predetermined  intervals  both  during  the  day  and  night. 
The  apparatus  was  driven  by  a  curious  motor  which 
obtained  its  power  from  dripping  water;  and  the  arrange- 
ment was  such  that,  after  the  exposure  was  made,  the  film 
was  moved  forward  to  bring  the  next  area  of  sensitised 
surface  before  the  lens.  The  receptacle  containing  the 
seed  was  placed  at  the  correct  distance  to  ensure  a  large 
picture,  and  for  the  purposes  of  illumination  at  night  a 
special  device  was  connected  to  the  driving  mechanism  of 
the  camera,  whereby  the  subject  was  brilliantly  illuminated 
at  the  instant  of  exposure.  The  exposures  were  made  at 
average  intervals  of  thirty  minutes,  giving  forty-eight 
exposures  at  different  stages  of  the  growth  in  the  course 
of  the  twenty-four  hours.  When  projected  on  the  screen 
at  the  normal  rate  of  sixteen  pictures  per  second,  it  looks 
as  though  the  growth  of  the  plant  had  been  forced  to 
about  30,000  times  its  usual  speed,  with  the  camera 
continuously  in  operation  the  whole  time. 

The  great  secret  of  Mr.  Smith's  success  is  the  simplicity 
of  the  apparatus  he  employs  for  his  work.  Each  subject 
demands  special  arrangements.  His  contrivances  for  the 
most  part  are  extemporised  from  crude  materials;  even 
the  microscope,  which  he  sometimes  uses,  being  of  the 
simplest  and  cheapest  pattern.  He  has  found  that 
elaborate  apparatus  often  complicates  his  work  without 
producing  such  good  results  as  are  procurable  by  the  most 
primitive  devices. 

Work  in  this  field  is  attended  with  some  curious  results. 
The  eyes  of  some  of  the  lower  animals  are  extremely  fine 
lenses,  and  unless  care  is  bestowed  some  sorry  tricks  are 
played  at  the  expense  of  the  scientist.  Mr.  Smith  related 
to  me  that  on  one  occasion  he  secured  an  excellent  series 
of  pictures  of  the  frog  at  close  quarters ;  and  congratulated 
himself  upon  his  success.  His  dismay  was  great  when 
he  projected  the  pictures  for  the  first  time.  Although  the 
frog  itself  was  beyond  reproach,  interest  in  it  paled  before 
the  unexpected  sight  of  the  operator  turning  the  handle 

o  2 


196  MOVING  PICTURES  ch.  xvn 

of  the  cinematograph,  reflected  with  great  distinctness  in 
the  frog's  eye. 

There  is  one  great  difficulty  attending  the  photography 
of  the  smaller  organisms  of  Nature  which  is  very  difficult 
to  surmount;  that  is,  unnatural  results  arising  either  from 
the  disturbance  of  the  object  under  examination,  or  its 
photography  in  a  false  environment.  This  complexity  is 
emphasised  very  strongly  in  connection  with  cinemato- 
graphy. If  it  is  desired,  for  instance,  to  record  garden 
pests  engaged  in  their  destructive  work,  it  is  trying  indeed 
to  convey  a  correct  pictorial  description  of  their  methods. 
Troubles  concerning  illumination  are  particularly  baffling 
of  solution.  Mr.  Smith  has  devised  a  special  apparatus, 
which  is  very  similar  in  its  general  characteristics  to  a 
heliograph,  mounted  upon  a  tripod  stand  so  that  it  can 
be  revolved  in  any  direction.  With  this  parabolic  reflector 
the  sunlight  can  be  brought  into  position  and  concentrated 
upon  the  subject  under  cinematographic  observation  with- 
out disturbing  it.  The  photographs  by  this  means  of 
insects  at  work,  no  matter  how  unreal  *hey  may  appear 
at  first  sight,  are  absolutely  true  to  Nature,  and  are  taken 
under  incontestably  natural  conditions.  In  fact,  the  ray 
of  illumination  thrown  upon  the  object  by  this  means  is 
so  brilliant  as  to  enable  subjects  to  be  photographed  in 
their  natural  colours;  which  fact  may  in  the  future  afford 
scientists  a  wonderful  opportunity  of  studying  protective 
colouring  in  insects. 

It  is  probably  beyond  dispute  that  the  popular  scientific 
film,  treated  in  such  a  manner  as  is  indicated  in  this 
chapter,  is  certain  to  command  the  approval  of  the  public 
in  the  end.  At  the  present  moment  the  popular  scientific 
cinematograph  picture  is  in  its  infancy.  It  will  be  only 
through  the  perseverance  of  the  scientist  who  has  the 
happy  faculty  of  amusing  as  well  as  entertaining  a  general 
audience  that  this  class  of  film  ever  will  have  a  vogue. 
The  tendency  towards  this  state  of  affairs,  happily,  is 
improving  every  day,  for  the  cinematograph  is  appealing 
more  and  more  to  the  cultured  classes,  who,  after  all, 
constitute  its  most  substantial  support. 


CHAPTER    XVIII 

TRICK    PICTURES    AND  HOW  THEY   ARE    PRODUCED 

/. — The  first   attempts  at   cinematograph   magic   and   the 
artifices  adopted 

As  soon  as  the  cinematograph  had  established  itself 
firmly  in  popular  favour,  and  there  was  every  indication 
that  it  would  become  a  permanent  form  of  entertainment, 
it  entered  one  field  after  another  of  popular  interest.  We 
have  seen  how  the  picture  play  was  evolved  from  un- 
rehearsed episodes  in  everyday  life ;  and  when  the  studio- 
stage  became  an  indispensable  acquisition  to  the  picture 
play  producer,  another  movement  was  created.  This  was  the 
trick  film.  The  pioneers  realised  that  the  intervals  between 
the  exposure  of  successive  sections  of  film  corresponding 
to  an  image  offered  extreme  opportunities  for  the  practice  of 
chicanery,  and  the  presentation  of  weird,  fantastic,  and 
mystifying  effects. 

The  trick-film  owes  its  inception  to  a  well-known  French 
prestidigitateur,  Monsieur  Meiies.  He  was  among  the  first 
to  embark  upon  the  manufacture  of  film  subjects,  and 
it  naturally  occurred  to  him  to  impress  magic  into  the 
service  of  the  industry.  His  first  attempts  were  of  the 
simplest  description.  He  confined  himself  to  the  perform- 
ance before  the  camera  of  the  same  tricks  that  he  offered 
an  audience  from  behind  the  footlights. 

Having  by  this  means  tested  the  public  and  found  it 
responsive,  he  introduced  all  the  devices  known  to  the 
"Black  Art."  Furniture  danced  upon  the  screen,  and 
moved  hither  and  thither  about  a  room;  skeletons  gam- 
bolled capriciously;  weird  displays  of  "Black  Magic"  were 

*87 


r98  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

shown ;  all  sorts  of  inanimate  objects  were  imbued  with 
life ;  dolls  and  toy  animals  and  birds  were  given  the 
semblance  of  natural  action.  The  films  amused  and 
mystified  the  public  exceedingly,  and  the  Melies  trick  films 
enjoyed  a  remarkable  vogue. 

Meanwhile,  Robert  Paul  in  England  had  been  consider- 
ing the  feasibility  of  the  same  idea,  but  had  feared  that  the 
personality  of  the  magician  would  be  missed.  Seeing  the 
success  of  the  Frenchman,  he  decided  to  embark  upon  a 
similar  line  of  activity.  He  saw  the  possibility  of  producing 
far  more  startling  effects  than  even  the  most  accomplished 
and  dexterous  magician  ever  could  hope  to  achieve.  But 
the  task  bristled  with  difficulties.  The  stage  had  to  be 
overhauled  and  equipped  with  elaborate  devices  to  facilitate 
sudden  disappearances,  apparitions,  etc.  A  workshop  also 
was  necessary  for  the  preparation  of  the  properties,  and 
the  character  of  the  work  rendered  indispensable  the  ser- 
vices of  an  expert  magician. 

Cinematographic  knowledge  was  in  its  infancy;  and 
accordingly  some  of  the  methods  used  in  the  late  'nineties 
seem  somewhat  involved  as  compared  with  those  practised 
to-day.  But  it  was  upon  these  early  struggles  and  failures 
that  the  present  adequate  equipment  was  built  up.  Indeed, 
from  the  point  of  view  of  the  audience  many  of  these  first 
films  have  never  been  surpassed. 

To  describe  the  methods  adopted  in  the  production  of 
every  trick  picture  is  obviously  impossible  in  the  compass 
of  this  volume,  but  I  am  able,  through  the  courtesy  of 
Mr.  Robert  Paul,  to  explain  how  many  of  the  strange 
effects  in  his  most  striking  trick  films  were  achieved.  The 
processes  most  generally  practised  were  the  "stop-motion  " 
and  "double  printing,"  which  are  explained  fully  in  the 
next  chapter,  but  in  addition  to  these  methods  he  devised 
many  others,  some  of  which  have  been  superseded  by  easier 
operations.  For  example,  where  gradual  disappearances 
and  appearances  were  desired,  instead  of  using  a  rectilinear 
diaphragm  stop  in  the  lens  as  is  now  usual,  Paul  occasion- 
ally resorted  to  the  chemical  dissolution  of  the  emulsion  and 
image  from  the  film — an  intricate  and  delicate  manipulation 


xvin  TRICK   PICTURES  199 

entailing  considerable  time  and  care,  because  if  the  dissolu- 
tion process  were  carried  too  far  or  undertaken  by  unskilled 
hands,  the  film  was  spoiled  and  much  labour  fruitlessly 
expended. 

Sometimes  the  desired  result  was  brought  about  by 
means  of  two  special  detachable  stops,  which  were  placed 
in  the  lens.  Each  of  these  stops  had  a  V-shaped  opening 
of  identical  dimensions,  and  were  set  at  right-angles  to 
one  another.  As  they  were  gradually  drawn  apart  the 
aperture  formed  by  the  intersection  of  the  V-openings 
through  which  the  light  passed  to  the  film  was  enlarged, 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  as  they  were  moved  towards  one 
another,  the  aperture  was  decreased,  until  at  last  the  film 
scarcely  recorded  any  impression  of  the  subject  photo- 
graphed. The  gradual  synchronous  movement  of  these  two 
V-shaped  stops  was  somewhat  difficult.  To-day  their  place 
is  taken  by  the  rectilinear  stop  in  the  lens,  whereby  the  same 
effect  can  be  produced  much  more  easily. 

One  of  the  best  and  most  successful  trick  films  Paul 
ever  produced  was  the  mediaeval  mystery  entitled  "The 
Magic  Sword."  It  appealed  to  the  grown-up  because  of 
the  astonishing  effects  introduced,  and  to  the  children  for 
the  reason  that  it  provided  an  intimate  glimpse  of  fairyland 
with  its  giants,  witches,  good  and  bad  fairies,  and  other 
strange  beings  not  encountered  in  this  world.  It  was 
sumptuously  produced,  and  many  of  the  tricks  were  intro- 
duced to  the  public  for  the  first  time. 

The  first  scene  shows  a  gallant  knight  meeting  his  lady- 
love on  the  battlements  of  the  castle  at  midnight ;  a  ghost 
appears,  towards  which  the  knight  advances,  but  it  melts 
from  his  grasp.  A  witch  rides  over  the  dark  sky  on  her 
broom,  and  the  knight  in  turn  endeavours  to  seize  her,  but 
she  eludes  his  attack  and  departs,  shaking  her  fist  in 
rage.  An  ogre  no  less  than  fifteen  feet  tall  thrusts  his 
head  and  shoulders  over  the  battlements,  seizes  the  damsel 
and  bears  her  off  through  the  sky.  The  lover  is  in  the 
depths  of  despair,  but  a  good  fairy  comes  to  his  aid,  gives 
him  a  flaming  sword,  and  bids  him  go  in  search  of  his 
lady-love. 


200  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

The  battlemented  castle  gradually  dissolves  into  a  witch's 
cavern,  to  which  the  frightened  lady  is  brought  captive  by 
the  witch,  and  transformed  into  a  second  hag.  Many  ad- 
ventures follow;  finally  the  good  fairy  triumphs  over  evil, 
and  the  witch  is  converted  into  a  roll  of  carpet,  on  which 
the  lovers  float  through  the  air  to  fall  from  the  sky  upon 
the  lady's  parents  while  they  are  banqueting  in  the  castle 
grounds. 

The  trick  effects  in  this  film  were  produced  almost  entirely 
by  double  printing,  two  negative  films  being  superimposed 
to  make  a  positive.  The  accompanying  illustration 
shows  how  the  appearance  of  the  ogre  was  obtained. 
The  scene  with  the  two  principal  players,  the  knight  and 
the  lady,  first  was  acted  and  photographed  upon  one  film. 
The  sky  was  a  neutral  back-cloth  with  a  crescent  moon 
painted  on  it.  Then  the  second  film  was  prepared  bearing 
the  ghost,  the  witch,  and  the  ogre  respectively.  The 
spectral  effect  of  the  ghost  named  was  realistically  con- 
veyed by  under-exposing  the  second  film,  so  that  the 
stone  of  the  battlements  could  be  distinguished  plainly 
through  the  form  of  the  figure.  The  ogre  was  an 
actor  of  ordinary  height,  but  as  he  was  photographed 
with  a  short-focus  lens  from  a  point  nearer  the  object  than 
the  characters  in  the  first  scene,  when  the  print  was  made 
he  appeared  to  be  more  than  twice  as  tall  as  the  other 
performers.  In  this  scene  the  wall  over  which  he  reached 
was  covered  with  black  cloth. 

In  order  to  get  the  effect  of  the  witch  riding  in  the  sky, 
Paul  invented  a  novel  movement  in  the  camera,  which  is 
now  in  general  use  in  trick  cinematography.  The  lens 
was  arranged  to  be  raised  or  lowered  in  relation  to  the  area 
of  film  in  the  gate,  but  still  independently  of  the  film  itself. 
This  was  done  with  a  small  gearing  device  whereby,  when 
the  gear  handle  was  turned,  the  lens  was  moved  upwards 
or  downwards.  The  witch  astride  her  broom  stood  upon 
the  floor  of  the  stage,  which  was  covered  with  black  cloth, 
against  a  background  of  similar  material.  By  turning 
the  gear  handle  of  the  lens  attachment  the  latter  was 
raised,  until  the  witch  riding  on  her  broom  was  lifted  to 


-    L 

M  O 
2u 


C         i,.- 

—       :    . 

[/J       u  E 

x  - 


C       --S 


xvm  TRICK   PICTURES  201 

the  upper  corner  of  the  film  and  there  photographed. 
Although  she  simulated  the  action  of  riding  through  space 
in  the  traditional  manner,  in  reality  she  merely  moved 
across  the  black-covered  floor  of  the  stage. 

The  strange  effects  produced  in  the  witch's  cave  were 
obtained  both  by  double  printing  and  the  "stop  motion," 
as  well  as  by  the  manipulation  of  the  stop  in  the  lens.  The 
conversion  of  the  captured  lady  into  a  witch  was  accom- 
plished by  stopping  the  camera;  and  while  the  lens  was 
covered  by  the  shutter,  introducing  a  second  actress,  already 
made  up,  who  stepped  into  the  position  occupied  by  the 
lady,  while  the  latter  quickly  left  the  stage.  The  other 
actors  maintained  a  rigid  position  while  the  camera  lens 
was  closed  and  the  substitution  took  place.  The  conversion 
of  the  witch  into  a  roll  of  carpet  was  effected  in  a  similar 
way.  When  the  "stop"  call  was  given  the  witch  dis- 
appeared from  the  stage,  and  a  roll  of  carpet  took  her  place. 

The  journey  of  the  lovers  through  space  upon  the  magic 
carpet  was  carried  out  by  the  manipulation  of  the  rising 
and  falling  lens  already  described.  When  the  solution 
of  the  baffling  trick  is  given  it  appears  absurdly  simple, 
but  the  elaboration  of  the  idea  entailed  several  weeks'  pre- 
paration, combined  with  hard  thinking  on  the  part  of  the 
producers,  while  the  filming  alone  occupied  several  days. 

Paul's  studio  was  excellently  adapted  to  producing  strange 
variations  in  stature.  He  could  make  a  giant  or  Lilliputian 
at  will.  The  camera  was  mounted  upon  a  special  trolley, 
which  could  be  moved  forwards  and  backwards  in  relation 
to  the  stage  over  a  pair  of  rails  similar  to  a  railway  track. 
The  closer  the  camera  was  to  the  stage  the  larger  were 
the  figures.  A  photograph  at  a  distance  of  fifteen  feet 
presented  people  of  normal  height.  But  when  the  camera 
was  advanced  close  to  the  stage  the  players  photographed 
were  of  immense  stature,  an  effect  emphasised  still  further 
when  one  film  was  printed  over  the  other. 

By  varying  the  distance  between  the  camera  and  the 
stage  Paul  produced  some  delightful  results.  One  picture 
was  called  "The  Cheese  Mites,"  or  "Lilliputians  in  a 
London  Restaurant."     A  traveller  entered  a  caf£  and  took 


202  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

his  seat  before  a  window.  When  he  had  finished  his  meal 
the  waiter  brought  him  a  mug  of  beer,  out  of  which,  to 
the  intense  surprise  of  the  traveller,  a  little  sailor  about 
six  inches  in  height  climbed  and  executed  a  hornpipe  on 
the  diner's  plate.  The  sailor  then  went  to  the  cheese,  which 
was  about  his  own  height,  and  produced  a  lady  therefrom. 
The  sailor  and  the  lass  were  engaged  in  an  animated  con- 
versation when  another  little  man  appeared  on  the  scene. 
The  two  men  ultimately  quarrelled  and  there  was  a  spirited 
contest. 

This  introduction  to  modern  Lilliput  is  simple  to  explain. 
On  one  film  the  diner  and  his  actions  were  photographed, 
the  camera  being,  say,  fifteen  feet  distant.  After  this  film 
was  secured  a  second  film  was  made  of  the  Lilliputians, 
who,  of  course,  were  not  midgets,  but  people  of  normal 
stature.  They  acted  against  a  background  of  neutral  tint; 
but  the  camera  was  set  about  150  feet  from  the  stage,  and 
a  long-focus  lens  was  used.  The  consequence  was  that  the 
figures  appeared  very  tiny  upon  the  second  film,  so  that 
when  the  two  films  were  superimposed  for  the  purposes 
of  printing  the  positive  the  contrast  between  the  diner  and 
the  sailors  was  strangely  impressive,  the  latter  being  no 
taller  than  the  jug  upon  the  table. 

Some  very  astonishing  results  can  be  obtained  by  this 
superprinting  operation,  either  straightforwardly  or  in 
combination  with  the  variation  in  the  photographic  range 
as  described  in  the  previous  paragraph.  The  soldier  dying 
on  the  battlefield  sees  his  home  and  mother  in  a  dream 
which  occupies  the  whole  of  one  corner  of  the  picture ;  there 
is  the  vision  of  Marley's  Ghost,  and  so  on.  One  of  the 
earliest  of  Paul's  simple  trick  subjects  was  a  film  illus- 
trating the  song  "Ora  Pro  Nobis,"  wherein  the  starving, 
ill-clad  orphan  was  seen  to  sink  in  collapse  in  the  snow- 
outside  the  church  door,  the  climax  being  the  death  of  the 
waif  and  the  descent  of  the  angel  to  receive  and  bear  her 
spirit  heavenwards.  This  was  effected  purely  by  double 
printing,  the  ascending  and  descending  action  of  the  angel 
being  carried  out  by  means  of  the  gear-operated  falling  and 
rising  lens  of  the  camera. 


fc 


5^ 


v  — 
5* 


^  a,2 

— -g-a 

»  =  = 

"■a  „ 
.go" 

S.i  § 


o.  =■ 


•5  « 


xviii  TRICK   PICTURES  203 

"The  Haunted  Curiosity  Shop  "  was  a  well-executed  and 
startling  trick  film.  A  floating  skull  was  transformed  into 
the  bust  of  a  charming  lady,  while  the  second  half  of  the 
body  walked  in  and  attached  itself  to  the  upper  half.  The 
dealer  attempted  to  grasp  his  strange  visitor  around  the 
waist  with  a  view  to  stealing  a  kiss,  but  to  his  disgust 
the  fair  damsel  changed  into  a  grinning  negress.  In  anger 
he  thrust  her  into  an  old  wardrobe,  where  she  became 
white  again.  The  outline  of  the  fair  prisoner  could  be  seen 
through  the  woodwork  of  the  cupboard;  changing  first 
into  an  Egyptian  mummy,  then  a  living  Egyptian,  and 
next  into  a  skeleton.  The  dealer  made  a  lunge  at  the 
skeleton  with  a  sword,  but  the  weapon  struck  the  breast- 
plate of  a  man  in  armour.  The  latter  was  then  torn  limb 
from  limb,  and  the  dismembered  body  was  thrown  into  a 
huge  jar,  from  which  rose  three  gnomes,  who  finally  re- 
solved themselves  into  one.  He  was  thrust  back  into  the 
jar,  and  a  dense  cloud  of  smoke  rose,  from  which  the 
dealer  fled  in  terror,  while  a  large  head  appeared  from  the 
smoke  and  advanced  towards  the  audience. 

This  picture  was  produced  by  recourse  to  "stop-motion  " 
and  double  printing.  The  changes  from  white  woman  to 
negress,  mummy,  Egyptian,  skeleton,  and  man  in  armour, 
were  produced  by  substitution  while  the  lens  was  closed 
by  the  shutter.  The  space  indicated  by  the  wardrobe  was 
a  recess  having  a  black  back-cloth,  against  which  the 
skeleton  was  photographed,  and  which  when  the  two  nega- 
tives were  superimposed  was  shown  to  be  standing  before 
the  astonished  dealer.  The  photographs  of  the  girl  were 
taken  with  the  wardrobe  doors  open  and  well-exposed,  so  as 
to  obtain  a  strong  image,  which  could  be  seen  through  the 
other  film  showing  the  wardrobe  doors  closed.  The  dis- 
memberment of  the  man  in  armour  was  carried  out  with 
properties,  while  the  grotesque  head  was  obtained  by  bring- 
ing the  camera  within  a  short  distance  of  the  stage  so  as  to 
secure  an  enlarged  photograph  of  an  actor  made  up  to 
suit  the  part. 

"The  (?)   Motorist"   was  an   extraordinary  example  of 
Paul's  handiwork.  The  effects  were  so  startling  and  the 


2o4  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

situations  so  unconventional  that  the  spectators  were  sorely 
puzzled  as  well  as  vastly  entertained.  The  picture  opens 
with  a  motorist  and  a  lady  entering  a  small  two-seated  car. 
They  set  off,  but  presently  a  policeman  attempts  to  stop 
them.  He  is  picked  up  and  dropped  over  the  back  of  the 
automobile.  The  motorist  continues  on  his  way,  with  the 
offended  emissary  of  the  law  in  pursuit.  Presently  a  public- 
house  bars  the  road,  but  the  car,  on  reaching  the  obstruc- 
tion, runs  up  the  wall,  to  the  dismay  of  a  large  crowd,  and 
shoots  into  space.  Without  a  pause  it  speeds  over  the 
clouds,  visits  the  sun,  which  it  circles  calmly,  and  once 
more  swinging  into  space  runs  over  the  clouds  until  it 
reaches  Saturn.  The  ring  round  this  planet  constitutes 
an  ideal  motor  track,  around  which  the  automobile  rushes 
in  mad  glee.  Finally  it  shoots  off  this  unusual  highway 
and  drops  through  space,  to  crash  into  a  court  of  justice. 
After  striking  terra  firma  in  this  unconventional  manner, 
the  car  continues  its  journey  out  of  the  building,  followed 
by  policemen,  magistrate,  and  other  officials.  To  their 
amazement,  however,  just  as  they  are  about  to  arrest  the 
delinquent  it  vanishes,  leaving  in  its  place  a  countryman's 
cart,  in  which  a  smock-frocked  farmer  and  his  wife  are 
seated.  When  the  pursuers  are  at  a  safe  distance,  the  cart 
changes  back  to  the  motor,  and  makes  good  its  escape. 

The  point  beyond  the  comprehension  of  the  public  was 
the  journey  of  the  motor  across  the  clouds  and  round  the 
sun  and  Saturn.  It  looked  precisely  as  if  the  planets  and 
the  car  were  viewed  through  a  telescope.  To  get  this 
effect  models  were  used.  A  suitable  back-cloth  was  pre- 
pared painted  with  clouds,  stars,  the  planets,  etc.  On  the 
stage  a  large  model  was  set  up  to  represent  Saturn  with 
its  ring.  A  small  model  of  a  motor-car  was  prepared,  in 
which  two  dolls  representing  the  motorist  and  his  com- 
panion were  placed,  and  propelled  round  the  ring  at  in- 
creasing speed. 

A  model  of  the  sun  was  suspended  upon  the  stage 
before  the  back-cloth.  The  model  of  the  car  was  attached 
to  an  arm,  which  was  pivoted  to  the  back  of  the  sun, 
like  a  clock   hand,  so  that   the  wheels  of  the  model  car 


Motoring  round  the  ring  of  Saturn. 


The  car  circling  the  sun. 
["HE   ?    MOTORIST— A    STARTLING    TRICK    l'l<    I'URE 
Both  car  and  planets  were  small  models. 


•J)  V    — 


t=j      a 

z     .£,"2 

<      -5  ~ 


xvin  TRICK  PICTURES  205 

rested  on  the  circumference  of  the  model  of  the  planet. 
This  was  revolved,  thereby  swinging  the  motor-car  round 
and  round,  conveying  the  impression  that  the  car  was 
travelling  round  the  sphere  under  its  own  power.  For 
the  journey  through  the  clouds  the  model  of  the  car 
was  photographed  against  a  back-cloth.  The  idea  of  falling 
through  space  was  conveyed  by  the  manipulation  of  the 
rising  and  falling  lens.  The  success  of  this  novel  trick  film 
prompted  many  imitations.  Working  with  models,  how- 
ever, is  by  no  means  a  simple  operation,  because,  unless 
they  are  prepared  and  manipulated  very  skilfully,  the  decep- 
tion is  palpable. 

Another  of  Paul's  films  was  the  representation  of  a  rail- 
way collision.  The  scene  represented  a  single  railway  line 
threading  mountainous  country.  A  goods  train  came  in 
sight  and  overshot  the  danger  signal.  An  attempt  was 
made  to  back  the  train,  but  before  it  could  reach  safety  an 
express  dashed  from  the  tunnel  ahead  and  crashed  into  the 
stationary  train,  precipitating  a  scene  of  wreckage.  Car- 
riages, locomotives,  and  goods  wagons  were  hurled  down 
the  embankment  and  piled  upon  one  another  by  the  force  of 
the  impact.  Many  people  who  saw  this  film  marvelled  at 
Paul's  good  fortune  in  being  on  the  scene  to  photograph 
such  a  disaster.  They  were  convinced  that  it  was  genuine. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  scene  of  the  accident  was  a  field, 
in  which  the  scenery  was  erected  with  considerable  care, 
and  a  long  length  of  model  railway  track  was  laid  down, 
while  the  trains  were  good  toy  models.  The  film  only 
measured  forty  feet,  as  it  was  designed  originally  for  the 
kinetoscope ;  but  its  popularity  was  so  complete  that  it 
was  adopted  extensively  for  the  cinematograph.  Certainly 
it  produced  forty  of  the  most  thrilling  seconds  it  is  possible 
to  conceive,  for  the  disaster  was  perfect  in  its  swiftness  and 
wreckage;  and  the  cinematograph  film  images  being  less 
sharp  and  decisive  than  those  obtained  by  a  hand  camera, 
the  illusion  was  conveyed  very  convincingly. 

Scores  of  trick  pictures  of  infinite  variety  were  produced 
by  Mr.  Robert  Paul  during  his  active  connection  with 
the  cinematograph  industry.     In  common  with  other  pro- 


206  MOVING   PICTURES  ch.  xviii 

ducers  of  trick  films,  Paul  found  that  the  time  involved 
in  their  production  was  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  financial 
results.  It  was  no  uncommon  circumstance  for  a  subject 
approximating  ioo  feet  in  length  to  absorb  a  week  or  more 
of  continuous  work.  Moreover,  his  most  successful  sub- 
jects were  seized  by  American  houses  and  "duped" — as 
unauthorised  reproduction  is  called  in  cinematographic 
parlance  in  that  country  :  no  copyright  law  existed  on  the 
subject.  Some  of  the  subjects  thus  exploited  met  with  a 
phenomenal  success,  from  which  he  never  received  the 
slightest  benefit  or  even  recognition. 


CHAPTER    XIX 

TRICK    PICTURES    AND    HOW    THEY    ARE   PRODUCED 

II. — Dancing  Furniture :  Strings,  Cords  and  Wires:  "The 
Magnetic  Gentleman":  The  "Stop  and  Substitu- 
tion": "The  Automobile  Accident":  Reversal  of 
Action. 

The  achievements  of  Melies  and  Paul  set  a  very  high 
standard  of  excellence  in  trick  pictures.  Their  popularity 
precipitated  a  "trick  film"  fever.  The  market  became 
inundated  with  so-called  magic  pictures,  of  which  the 
majority  were  inane  or  conventional.  The  inevitable 
happened;  the  public  appetite  became  satiated.  Conse- 
quently, to-day,  the  popular  taste  demands  extreme 
novelty.  Unless  the  subject  is  original  in  theme,  and  the 
atmosphere  of  mystification  is  sustained,  the  effort  is 
regarded  with  indifference,  if  not  with  absolute  contempt. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  first-class  trick  film  commands  the 
highest  admiration,  is  regarded  with  as  much  satisfaction 
as  were  the  products  of  the  past  masters  in  cinemato- 
graphic magic  of  fifteen  years  ago,  and  when  once  seen 
is  not  forgotten  very  readily.  There  are  certain  producers 
who  specialise  in  trick  films  with  considerable  success ; 
but  their  number  is  small. 

On  the  other  hand,  trick  devices  are  introduced  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  into  the  ordinary  picture  play.  I  recall  a 
film  which  depicted  a  scene  at  sea,  where  the  vessel  upon 
which  the  action  took  place  was  shown  rolling  and  plung- 
ing in  a  truly  appalling  manner,  and  was  swept  from  stem 
to  stern  time  after  time  by  the  angry  waves  and  scud. 
Wonder  and  admiration  were  expressed  by  the  public  at 


208  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

the  daring  of  the  producer  in  venturing  upon  a  small  boat 
under  such  terrible  climatic  conditions  merely  to  procure  a 
sensational  picture. 

That  scene  was  produced  in  the  serenity  and  quietness 
of  the  glass-covered  studio  under  the  glare  of  electric 
lights.  The  boat  deck  was  a  stage  property,  comprising 
a  platform  built  to  resemble  the  deck  of  an  actual  vessel, 
mounted  upon  rollers  in  such  a  way  that  when  the  latter 
were  set  in  motion  the  boat  was  caused  to  rock,  roll,  and 
pitch  in  the  most  alarming  manner.  The  angry  waves 
seen  on  the  horizon  as  the  craft  dipped  its  nose  or  rose 
upon  a  crest  were  no  more  than  back-cloths  and  flats 
worked  out  by  the  scene  painter,  and  set  up  by  the  stage 
carpenter,  while  the  driving  spray  and  water  came  from 
nothing  more  formidable  than  hydrants. 

Behind  the  property  boat  deck,  and  disposed  in  con- 
cealed positions,  were  stage  hands,  equipped  with  hoses 
and  nozzles.  By  manipulating  these  streams  of  water 
dexterously  as  the  craft  dipped,  the  jets  of  water  were 
played  upon  its  sides  at  varying  angles,  causing  the 
foaming  liquid  to  shoot  into  the  air  to  produce  the  precise 
effect  of  a  rolling  boat  dropping  into  the  trough  of  the 
sea  and  smashing  into  an  angry  wave  in  its  descent.  The 
company  suffered  a  severe  drenching,  it  is  true,  and  one 
of  the  actresses  was  afflicted  with  an  acute  attack  of  mal-de- 
mer  provoked  by  the  violent  movement  of  the  platform  ! 

In  another  instance  the  public  was  shown  a  seaport  town 
bombarded  by  a  hostile  cruiser.  In  the  foreground  were 
two  big  guns  on  the  vessel's  deck,  while  in  the  distance 
was  the  town.  There  was  a  puff  of  smoke,  and  the  next 
instant  the  buildings  struck  by  the  projectile  were  observed 
to  crumble  into  heaps  of  debris.  The  illusion  was  pro- 
duced very  simply.  The  big  guns  were  fabrications  of 
wooden  laths  and  painted  canvas,  the  smoke  was  a  cloud 
of  steam,  and  the  buildings  collapsed  because  they  were 
built  up  with  hinged  sections,  which  were  pulled  down  at 
the  critical  moment  by  means  of  concealed  wires  and  cords, 
controlled  from  the  back  of  the  stage. 

Through  the  courtesy  of  the  Gaumont  Company,  of 
London  and  Paris,  who  are  in  the  front  rank  of  masters 


1  $<*           >i   *v> 

!           * 

*   i  *c 

i 

THE   MAGNETIC   GENTLEMAN. 

The  man-hole  cover  rise?  to  pursue,  and  the  lamp-posl  crashes  over  to  strike 
i  by  the  aid  of  wires,  a  common  expedient  in  trick  i  inematography. 
— See  page  2 to. 


xix  TRICK   PICTURES  209 

in  film  magic,  at  all  events  as  far  as  Europe  is  con- 
cerned, I  have  been  allowed  to  go  behind  the  scenes  in 
their  studio,  and  am  in  a  position  to  explain  to  a  puzzled 
public  the  secret  of  many  an  apparent  miracle. 

The  film  called  "The  Travelling  Bed"  is  a  typical  sub- 
ject   of   mystification.      An    aged    tenant    has    fallen    into 
arrears  with  his  rent,  and  the  long-suffering  landlord  at 
last    commands    his   eviction.      The    bailiffs    duly    arrive 
upon  the  scene,  but  are  spared  all  trouble  by  the  fact  that 
directly  they  appear  the  chairs,  table,  and  other  articles 
burst  into  life.     They  move  about   the   room,  and  finally 
file    out    of    the    door,    in    the    most   methodical    manner, 
to   pass  in  a   procession    into  the  street.     Meanwhile  the 
unhappy  tenant  is  reclining  upon  his  bed  in  the  depths 
of  despair.     He  has  no  home  and  does  not  know  where 
to  search  for  one.     The  bed,  however,  promptly  sets  out 
to  solve  the  problem.     It  bears  its  owner  into  the  public 
highway.      The   owner   is   overwhelmed  with   fright   and 
dismay  at  the  unexpected  development,   and  indulges  in 
frantic  gesticulations  as  the  bed  canters  merrily  down  the 
centre    of    the    road,    with    the    passers-by    pursuing    the 
unusual  spectacle.     The  mystery  of  the  Travelling  Bed  is 
easily  explained.     It  moves  for  the  simple  reason  that  it  is 
pushed    from    behind    by    stage    hands.     These    men    are 
concealed   from    the  camera,    which     merely     records    the 
movement  of  the  bed,  the  alarm   of  the  owner,   and  the 
excitement  of  the  crowd. 

This  is  the  simplest  and  most  usual  means  of  imparting 
animation  to  a  lifeless  object.  With  such  an  article  as  a 
chair,  which  cannot  hide  a  stage  hand,  recourse  has  to 
be  made  to  wires  or  strings  manipulated  from  a  point  in 
the  wings,  this  being  contrived  in  such  a  way  as  to  be 
invisible  to  the  public.  For  instance,  a  gendarme  is 
astonished  to  see  his  sword  whisked  away  from  him.  The 
accompanying  illustration  shows  precisely  how  this  is 
accomplished,  the  cords  responsible  for  the  action  being 
made  visible  purposely  to  explain  the  mystery,  whereas 
in  the  actual  film  these  strings  would  be  impossible  of 
detection. 
There   is  no   limitation  to   the  variety  of  effects   which 

P 


210  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

can  be  produced  by  the  invisible  medium  of  cords,  strings, 
and  wires.  Probably  their  possibilities  are  revealed  to  the 
most  pronounced  degree  in  such  a  film  as  "The  Magnetic 
Gentleman."  This  unfortunate  individual  has  been  the 
victim  of  an  attack  by  Paris  Apaches,  and  forthwith  vows 
never  to  venture  through  the  streets  again  without  a  pro- 
tective coat  of  mail  beneath  his  conventional  waistcoat. 
But  he  unintentionally  comes  into  close  proximity  to  a 
dynamo,  with  the  result  that  his  protective  coat  becomes 
highly  magnetised.  As  he  passes  shops  where  metallic 
articles  are  displayed  for  sale,  they  jump  towards  him  and 
cling  tenaciously  to  his  person.  To  one  and  all  of  these 
articles  thin  wires  or  strings  are  attached,  the  free  ends 
of  which  are  held  either  by  stage  hands  or  by  the  magnetic 
gentleman  himself.  At  the  critical  moment  the  cords  are 
pulled,  and  as  the  wires  stretch  across  the  path  along  which 
the  magnetic  gentleman  is  passing  they  appear  to  jump 
towards  him.  The  articles  which  actually  adhere  to  his 
person  are  connected  to  cords  held  by  the  actor  himself, 
who  merely  pulls  them  to  him  as  he  passes  the  shops. 

Presently  the  magnetic  gentleman  passes  over  a  man- 
hole cover  set  in  the  middle  of  the  pavement.  To  the 
amazement  of  the  audience,  the  cover  is  seen  to  rise  up  on 
its  edge  and  to  bowl  along  the  street  in  pursuit  of  its 
disturbing  factor.  The  cover  is  a  stage  property  made  of 
wood,  manipulated  by  wires  controlled  by  the  actor. 
When  the  cover  is  raised  there  is  a  short  "stop"  while  a 
stage  hand  enters  the  picture  to  give  the  cover  its  hoop- 
like impetus  necessary  to  start  it  rolling,  the  actor  then 
pulling  it  along  by  means  of  a  wire,  so  that  the  cover 
follows  hard  on  the  heels  of  the  luckless  individual,  until 
its  career  is  arrested  by  two  workmen,  who  struggle  with 
the  strange  runaway. 

But  the  magnetic  gentleman's  misadventures  have  by  no 
means  ended.  He  is  passing  a  lamp-post,  when  suddenly 
the  metal,  attracted  by  the  coat  of  mail,  endeavours  to  jump 
towards  him,  with  the  result  that  the  post  snaps  in  twain. 
The  lamp-post  is  a  dummy  or  stage  property,  hinged  at 
about  half  of  its  height  so  as  to  permit  the  upper  part  to 


V 


The  pursuing  man-hole  cover  is  a  wooden  property. 


The  lamp-post  is  a  stage  article  hinged  in  the  centre. 
HOW    THE    MAGNETIC    GENTLEMAN    TRICK    FILM    WAS    PRODUCED. 


K       JH 


—  to 

—  c 

—  o 


xix  TRICK  PICTURES  211 

heel  over  like  a  flap.  Wires  are  attached  to  the  upper 
half,  and  as  the  individual  passes  they  are  given  a  sharp 
tug  from  the  stage  hands  stationed  outside  the  picture, 
or  by  the  actor  himself,  and  it  falls  over. 

In  such  instances  as  these  the  deception  is  improved  by 
the  scenes  being  enacted  in  the  public  streets.  Every 
action  appears  to  be  carried  out  so  naturally,  and  the 
properties  are  designed  so  well  and  manipulated  so  care- 
fully at  the  critical  moments,  that  the  spectators  are  led 
to  believe  in  the  actuality  of  the  episodes. 

Of  course,  a  film  of  this  character  demands  considerable 
preparation,  and  photographing  it  occupies  a  long  time. 
The  picture  is  built  up  incident  by  incident,  in  the  same 
way  that  a  picture  play  is  produced,  there  being  an  interval 
of  time  between'  each  series  of  exposures  to  permit  the 
arrangements  for  the  next  episode  to  be  made;  and  each 
phase  is  rehearsed  over  and  over  again  before  being  filmed. 
When  the  pieces  of  film  are  connected  to  form  a  complete 
band,  the  continuity  in  action  is  so  perfect  that  the  public 
is  unable  to  detect  the  points  where  the  sequence  was 
interrupted. 

A  film  which  created  a  sensation  when  it  appeared  was 
the  "Automobile  Accident."  A  workman,  who  has  im- 
bibed not  wisely  but  too  well,  is  homeward  bound,  and 
describes  grotesque  geometrical  patterns  as  he  advances 
along  the  thoroughfare.  Presently  he  is  smitten  with  an 
irresistible  desire  to  sleep.  Although  the  couch  is  hard 
and  dangerous  he  lies  down  in  the  middle  of  the  road, 
and  in  a  few  seconds  is  in  the  arms  of  Morpheus.  While 
he  is  sleeping  peacefully  a  taxi-cab  comes  along  at  a  smart 
pace,  and,  not  observing  the  slumbering  form  of  the 
roysterer,  the  chauffeur  drives  over  him,  cutting  off  both 
his  legs.  The  shock  awakes  the  man  rudely,  and  he  is 
surprised  to  find  his  lower  limbs  scattered  across  the  road- 
way. The  chauffeur  is  horrified  by  the  unfortunate  acci- 
dent; but  his  fare,  on  the  contrary,  a  doctor,  is  not  much 
perturbed.  He  descends  from  his  carriage,  picks  up  the 
dismembered  limbs,  replaces  them  in  position,  assists  the 
afflicted  man  to  his  feet,   and  after  shaking  hands  each 

p  2 


212  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

proceeds  on  his  separate  way,  the  workman  resuming  his 
journey  as  if  nothing  had  happened. 

The  requirements  for  this  terrible  calamity  were  very 
few.  They  consisted  of  three  actors,  to  take  the  parts  of 
the  intoxicated  workman,  the  driver,  and  the  doctor  re- 
spectively ;  a  cripple  who  had  lost  both  legs  through  an 
accident,  and  for  properties  a  taxi-cab  and  a  couple  of 
artificial  limbs.  The  legless  cripple  is,  of  course,  the  key 
to  the  whole  situation.  The  great  difficulty  was  to  find 
such  a  luckless  individual,  and,  when  he  had  been  dis- 
covered, to  bribe  him  to  participate  in  a  picture  play. 
Probably  the  unfortunate  had  never  before  found  his  mis- 
fortune so  profitable  to  him. 

In  a  trick  film  like  this,  success  depends  essentially  upon 
what  may  be  described  as  the  "Stop  and  Substitution" 
action. 

When  the  legless  cripple  was  found,  the  leading  actor 
was  made  up  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  his  exact  counter- 
part. The  company  then  proceeded  to  the  scene  of  the 
accident,  which  was  in  the  Bois  de  Vincennes.  The 
camera  was  set  up  and  the  producer  outlined  the  story  to 
the  participants. 

In  taking  the  film  the  operations  were  as  follows  :  The 
leading  actor,  dressed  like  a  French  workman,  ambled 
down  the  road  simulating  inebriation,  and  presently  pre- 
pared his  couch  in  the  dust.  While  he  was  lying  prone 
and  asleep,  the  taxi-cab  drove  up  quickly  in  such  a  way 
as  to  run  over  the  sleeper's  legs  just  above  the  knees.  Of 
course,  this  did  not  actually  take  place,  the  chauffeur 
drawing  up  a  short  distance  from  the  prostrate  form.  At 
precisely  this  point  the  camera  stopped  working,  and  the 
cab  slowly  continued  its  way  until  its  front  wheels  touched 
the  prostrate  man's  legs  at  the  required  point.  The  tracks 
of  the  vehicle's  wheels  were  plainly  visible  on  the  road. 

At  this  juncture  the  producer  stepped  forward  with  the 
legless  cripple  mounted  on  his  self-propelled  wheeled  truck, 
from  which  he  was  lifted.  The  principal  actor  now  got  up 
and  left  the  scene.  The  cripple  took  his  place  in  the  road, 
and  the  artificial  legs  were  laid  against  his  stumps  in  a 


Observing  the  effects  "I  the  disaster,  the  doctor  proceeds  to  replace  the  seven 


THE    A  l    l'<  (MOBILE    ACCIDEN  I  . 
The  limbs  replaced,  the  patient  and  doctoi   shake  hand> 


xix  TRICK   PICTURES  213 

natural  position.  Care  had  to  be  taken  that  the  cripple 
occupied  exactly  the  same  position  as  that  of  the  actor  he 
had  displaced,  so  that  no  sign  of  the  substitution  could  be 
observed  on  the  film. 

The  cab  was  now  backed  to  its  former  starting  point  and 
then  re-started,  the  chauffeur  making  it  follow  the  tracks 
made  by  his  wheels  on  the  former  journey.  As  the  auto- 
mobile reached  the  point  where  it  had  stopped  in  the 
previous  picture,  the  camera  started  working  again,  and 
the  cab  ran  over  the  prostrate  cripple,  cutting  off  both  his 
legs — in  reality  displacing  the  dummy  limbs  and  tumbling 
them  across  the  road. 

Suddenly  awakened  in  this  rough  manner,  the  sleeper 
beholds  his  severed  limbs  with  dismay,  and  then  hops 
after  the  vehicle  which  had  been  the  cause  of  his  disaster. 
The  cab  stops,  the  doctor  alights,  picks  up  the  severed 
limbs,  and,  while  the  cripple  is  seated  on  the  ground, 
restores  the  displaced  artificial  limbs  to  their  natural 
positions. 

The  camera  now  stopped  working  once  more.  The 
cripple  was  restored  to  his  wheeled  carriage  and  trans- 
ported out  of  the  picture,  while  the  dummy  legs  were 
thrown  on  one  side.  In  the  place  of  the  cripple  the  prin- 
cipal actor  reappeared,  and  when  the  camera  started  again 
it  photographed  him  sitting  upon  the  ground.  He  is 
helped  to  his  feet  and  resumes  his  journey. 

In  this  picture  we  have  seen  two  "stop  and  substitu- 
tion "  movements,  once  when  the  principal  actor  was 
withdrawn  from  the  scene  to  make  way  for  the  legless 
cripple,  and  again  when  the  reverse  change  was  made. 
Owing  to  the  neat  and  skilful  manner  in  which  the  change 
from  the  actor  to  the  cripple,  and  back  from  the  cripple  to 
the  actor,  is  effected,  the  public  fails  to  observe  either  the 
stop  or  the  substitution,  and  thinks  that  one  man  acted  the 
role  throughout.  The  fact  that  the  accident  occurs  on  the 
high-road,  and  the  possibility  of  a  man  being  run  over  in 
this  manner,  helps  in  the  deception. 

The  "stop  and  substitution  "  movement  is  probably  prac- 
tised more  extensively  than  any  other  artifice  in  cinemato- 


2i4  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

graphy.  In  picture  dramas  where  a  situation  is  presented 
such  as  the  throwing  of  the  villain  over  a  cliff,  or  before 
an  approaching  train,  or  some  other  scene  impossible  to 
picture  without  sacrifice  of  life,  the  camera  is  stopped 
immediately  before  the  incident.  The  actors  engaged  in 
the  scene  become  rooted  to  the  spot  when  the  "stop"  call 
is  given,  signifying  the  fact  that  the  camera  has  ceased 
its  purring.  At  this  juncture  the  villain  disappears  from 
the  picture,  a  lay  or  dummy  figure  being  substituted  for 
him.  When  the  camera  resumes  operation  the  episode  is 
completed  with  the  dummy. 

Perhaps  the  best  example  of  this  expedient  is  that  repre- 
sented in  the  film  illustrating  the  "Fountain  of  Youth," 
a  version  of  the  fable  in  which  a  beggar  woman 
is  transformed  suddenly  into  a  beautiful  maiden  by  the 
kiss  of  a  young  gallant  of  good  heart.  A  chivalrous 
young  prince  is  strolling  through  a  wood  when  he  is  con- 
fronted by  an  old  and  wrinkled  witch,  who  makes  supplica- 
tion to  him.  In  an  instant  the  audience  realises  that  her 
sombre  garments  have  left  her  for  brighter  attire,  and 
that  the  haggard  face  has  been  converted  into  youthful 
beauty.  This  wonderful  transformation  is  worked  by 
recourse  to  the  "stop  and  substitution  "  action.  After  the 
"stop"  call  is  given  and  while  the  lens  is  closed  by  the 
shutter  the  hag  leaves  the  scene,  a  young  actress,  suitably 
attired,  assumes  her  position,  the  actor  retaining  his  posi- 
tion while  the  change  is  effected.  As  the  new  actress 
assumes  the  exact  pose  of  the  witch  when  the  camera  starts 
again,  there  is  a  complete  continuity  of  action  recorded, 
and  the  audience  cannot  detect  that  a  pause  and  change 
has  taken  place  between  the  two  consecutive  pictures. 

The  "stop"  movement  is,  as  a  rule,  the  secret  to  all 
instantaneous  disappearances.  It  enables  people  in  the 
scene  to  vanish  and  reappear  apparently  from  space.  It 
explains  the  wrestling  match,  in  which  the  audience  is 
startled  to  see  that  the  challenger  has  disappeared  sud- 
denly— leaving  his  antagonist  wrestling  with  the  air — only 
to   reappear  just   as  startlingly    in    another    part    of    the 


*-5 


THE    FOUNTAIN    OK    YOUTH. 

The  film  is  sti  ipped  b  I  «  een  pictures   i  and    ; 
to  permil   thi    actress  to  change  her  costume. 

I  HE    "•  ST<  IP    AND    SUBSTITU  I  ION,"    AND 


PUMl'KINS    RUNNING    UPHILL. 

This   unusual   effect   i-  obtained  byrunning 
the   film   backwards    through   the  projector. 

REVERSAL  01      Vllo\"     rRICK    PRACTICES. 


xix  TRICK   PICTURES  215 

picture.  When  the  time  arrives  the  "stop"  call  is  given. 
The  disappearing  actor  slips  out  of  the  scene,  while  every 
other  holds  the  position  in  which  he  has  been  caught  by 
the  last  exposure.  When  the  camera  is  re-started  and  the 
actors  continue  their  movements,  the  wrestler  proceeds  as 
if  gripping  an  opponent.  When  the  "stop"  call  is  given 
again  a  little  later,  the  elusive  opponent  steps  into  the 
picture  once  more,  assumes  a  suitable  attitude,  and  his 
movements  are  continued  when  the  camera  resumes 
operation. 

The  power  to  stop  the  camera  and  arrest  the  action  at 
any  point  provides  the  trick-film  maker  with  boundless 
possibilities  which  are  denied  to  his  contemporary  behind 
the  footlights.  On  the  legitimate  stage  the  sudden  disap- 
pearance and  appearance  has  to  be  made  through  a  trap 
door,  and,  no  matter  how  smartly  the  operation  may  be 
performed,  the  public  nevertheless  sees  the  action  taking 
place.  In  the  moving-picture  record  not  the  slightest  trace 
of  the  movement  can  be  noted.  The  actor  is  seen  in  one 
picture  and  is  missing  from  the  next.  He  appears  to  have 
dissolved  into  thin  air,  and  his  reappearance  is  just  as 
magically  produced.  This  mystification  of  the  public  is 
rendered  all  the  more  complete  b3>-  the  environment  in 
which  the  action  is  photographed.  When  performed  by 
a  magician  or  illusionist  on  the  stage,  the  public  naturally 
thinks  that  it  has  been  effected  by  the  medium  o£,  a  trap 
door  or  some  other  artifice.  When  the  magic  takes  place 
in  the  public  street,  where  no  such  trick  facilities  exist,  the 
natural  surroundings  lend  the  last  touch  to  the  illusion. 

Another  class  of  picture  which  causes  considerable  specu- 
lation as  to  how  it  is  contrived  is  that  in  which  all  natural 
action  becomes  reversed.  Horses,  cabs,  omnibuses,  motor- 
cars, and  cycles  run  backwards,  pedestrians  walk  back- 
wards, and  smoke,  instead  of  escaping  from  a  chimney, 
appears  to  flow  into  it.  Everything  is  topsy-turvy  :  the 
laws  of  gravitation  appear  to  be  defied.  This  novel 
result  is  produced  by  "reversal  of  action."  The  action 
may  be  photographed  in  the  natural  forward  manner,  but 


2l6 


MOVING    PICTURES 


CHAP. 


when  the  film  is  placed  in  the  projector,  the  last  picture 
taken  by  the  camera  is  shown  first,  and  consequently  all 
movement  becomes  reversed. 

Obviously  the  task  could  be  simplified  if  the  travel  of 
the  film  were  reversed  through  the  camera  during  exposure, 
but  in  ordinary  circumstances  this  would  involve 
rotating  the  handle  in  the  reverse  direction,  and  cause 
unsteadiness  in  the  picture.  However,  the  camera  manu- 
facturer has  solved  this  problem.     When  a  reversed  motion 


Fig.  17— The  "Empire"  Trick  Camera. 

It  can  be  turned  upside  down  while  the  film  can  be  driven  both 
forwards  and  backwards. 


is  required,  the  camera  may  be  inverted  upon  its  tripod, 
both  top  and  bottom  faces  having  facilities  for  screwing 
to  the  turn-table.  When  the  camera  is  set  upside  down, 
the  handle  is  rotated  in  the  natural  forward  manner,  but 
as  the  film  is  travelling  backwards  past  the  lens  all  move- 
ment is  reversed.  By  this  means  the  necessity  to  run  the 
film  backwards  through  the  projector  is  avoided.  It  is  not 
even  necessary  to  turn  the  camera  upside  down  now. 
Some  manufacturers  provide  a  second  driving  spindle,  on 


XIX 


TRICK   PICTURES  217 


to  which  the  handle  is  slipped  and  rotated  in  the  usual 
manner,  the  film  being  caused  to  travel  backwards  through 
reverse  gearing. 

Some  astonishing  and  highly  ingenious  pictures  can  be 
obtained  in  this  manner.  For  the  purposes  of  illustrating 
the  subject  I  have  taken  one  of  the  most  simple  results. 
It  depicts  a  "Pumpkin  Race,"  in  which  the  vegetables  are 
seen  to  roll  up  a  slope,  to  give  one  or  two  preliminary 
bounces,  and  then  to  fly  into  the  air  through  an  open 
window.  When  this  film  was  taken  the  pumpkins  were 
thrown  out  of  the  window,  bounced  and  rolled  down  the 
declivity  in  the  usual  manner,  but  as  the  film  for  the 
purposes  of  the  exposure  was  run  backwards  through  the 
camera,  when  shown  on  the  screen  the  opposite  and 
apparently  impossible  effect  is  produced. 

Some  years  ago  Mr.  James  Williamson  produced  a 
subject  of  this  class  which  provoked  remarkable  hilarity. 
It  was  called  "The  Workman's  Paradise."  A  building 
was  in  course  of  construction,  and  the  bricklayer  duly 
arrived  upon  the  scene  to  carry  out  his  task,  but  he  never 
stirred  a  hand.  As  he  stood  on  the  ground  the  bricks 
jumped  by  invisible  effort  into  the  hod  and  set  themselves 
side  by  side  in  the  most  approved  manner.  Then  the  load 
rose  through  the  air  to  the  scaffolding ;  the  bricks  fell  from 
the  hod  to  the  scaffold  floor,  and  finally  leaped  into  the 
air  one  by  one  to  settle  themselves  in  position  upon  the 
growing  wall.  Meanwhile  the  bricklayer  surveyed  the 
scene  with  his  pipe  in  his  mouth  and  an  air  of  supreme 
satisfaction. 

When  the  photographs  of  this  picture  were  taken,  the 
action  was  just  the  reverse  of  that  seen  upon  the  screen. 
The  wall  was  standing,  and  the  camera  in  reality  photo- 
graphed its  demolition  and  the  transport  of  the  bricks  to 
the  ground.  But  the  film  was  run  through  the  camera 
backwards,  so  that  the  last  picture  made  became  the  first 
projected  upon  the  screen,  and  so  on. 


CHAPTER    XX 

TRICK    PICTURES    AND    HOW    THEY    ARE     PRODUCED 

777. — Manipulation  of  the  film:  Apparitions  and  gradual 
disappearances  by  opening  and  closing  the  diaphragm 
of  the  lens  slowly :  "  The  Siren  " :  Submarine  effects. 

There  are  many  curious  and  bewildering  trick  effects 
which  cannot  be  produced  by  recourse  to  the  methods  I 
have  already  described.  It  is  impossible  to  detail  every 
artifice  employed;  for  every  film  possesses  some  individual 
characteristics.  Only  the  broad  outlines  of  the  general 
processes  employed  can  be  described  in  the  course  of  these 
chapters,  but  the  information  thus  afforded  will  enable  one 
to  fathom  how  the  majority  of  these  miraculous  pictures  are 
elaborated. 

We  have  all  laughed  and  enjoyed  the  class  of  trick-film 
portraying  frantic  haste  and  its  concomitant  disasters  or 
escapades.  The  scene  may  represent  a  public  street,  a  park, 
a  hotel,  or  even  a  private  residence.  The  fact  that  the 
ordinary  members  of  the  public  figuring  in  the  scene  move 
at  the  normal  speed  throws  the  frenzied  haste  of  the  prin- 
cipal performers  into  more  striking  contrast.  I  recall  two 
excellent  films  of  this  character.  In  one  case  the  story 
represented  the  operation  of  a  wonderful  little  machine 
which,  when  its  handle  was  turned,  radiated  a  magical 
influence  of  acceleration  upon  everyone  within  a  certain 
range,  precipitating  ludicrous  incidents  and  situations. 
One  saw  the  vehicles  and  pedestrians  flying  along  the 
crowded  Regent  Street  of  Paris  with  terrible  speed.     The 

dawdling  nursemaid    was  galvanised    into    life  when  the 

218 


ch.  xx  TRICK    PICTURES 


219 


apparatus  was  brought  within  a  few  feet  of  her — she  rushed 
her  perambulator  and  charged  along  the  boulevard  with  the 
velocity  of  a  racing  car;  while  the  errand-boy  completed 
his  duties  at  the  pace  of  an  aeroplane,  and  so  on.  Mr. 
James  Williamson  was  responsible  for  the  second  film  of 
this  character,  which  portrayed  the  British  Workman 
"waking  up  "  and  becoming  a  "hustler  "  of  the  first  water. 
The  bricklayers  ran  up  and  down  the  ladders  like  squirrels 
racing  up  a  tree,  while  the  bricks  were  laid  so  rapidly  that 
one  could  not  detect  the  movements  of  the  workman's 
hands,  and  the  carpenter  plied  his  saw  so  vigorously  that 
it  appeared  to  be  a  mere  streak  of  light. 

This  peculiar  effect  may  be  produced  easily  by  either  of 
two  methods.  One  is  to  turn  the  handle  of  the  camera  very 
slowly  while  photographing;  but  when  the  film  is  being 
shown  to  rotate  the  handle  of  the  projector  at  a  very 
high  speed.  The  result  is  that  the  pace  of  every  moving 
object  in  the  picture  is  increased  upon  projection  four, 
six,  or  eight  times  that  recorded  by  the  camera.  In  this 
case  every  moving  object  in  the  picture  moves  at  the  same 
pace.  There  are  no  contrasts  between  frantic  movement 
on  the  part  of  some  and  slow,  natural  motion  on  the  part  of 
other  people  in  the  scene  to  enhance  the  ludicrous  effect; 
moreover,  the  required  result  is  left  very  much  in  the  hands 
of  the  operator. 

Accordingly,  another  and  superior  expedient  was  evolved 
and  is  now  adopted  universally.  The  picture  is  taken  at 
the  normal  speed  of  sixteen  pictures  per  second,  but  the 
film  thus  obtained  after  development  is  taken  in  hand, 
and  its  length  is  reduced  by  cutting  out  every  other  picture 
— or  perhaps  even  more.  If  every  alternate  image  is 
eliminated  in  this  manner,  and  the  remaining  pieces  of 
film  are  re-joined,  the  length  of  the  film  is  reduced  by 
one  half,  and  when  thrown  upon  the  screen  at  the  normal 
speed  of  sixteen  pictures  per  second,  the  moving  objects 
travel  at  twice  the  speed  at  which  they  were  moving  when 
photographed. 

This  removal  of  the  images  from  the  string  of  consecu- 
tive pictures  is  known  as  "manipulation  of  the  film."     It 


220  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

is  a  tedious  and  delicate  process,  because  joining  together 
properly  a  series  of  images  measuring  only  three-quarters 
of  an  inch  in  depth  demands  skill  and  patience.  By  its 
means,  however,  some  bewildering  effects  may  be  obtained, 
one  of  which  is  shown  in  the  illustration.  This  film 
depicts  a  lad  who  has  been  hypnotised.  When  he  enters 
a  dwelling  his  presence  sets  the  furniture  dancing  violently, 
while  a  circular  table  round  which  four  people  are  seated, 
revolves  at  a  dizzy  pace.  For  the  purposes  of  this  film  the 
table  and  those  seated  around  were  mounted  upon  a  pivoted 
platform  free  to  revolve,  which  was  driven  from  beneath 
the  stage  or  from  some  other  convenient  point.  At  the 
right  moment  the  table  commenced  to  spin  around — at  a 
comparatively  slow  pace,  so  as  not  to  unseat  the  performers 
by  the  results  of  centrifugal  force — the  camera  meanwhile 
recording  the  movement.  After  the  film  was  developed 
images  were  cut  out  at  certain  points,  these  excisions  being 
so  made  as  to  reduce  the  length  of  film  devoted  to  the 
table-spinning  incident  from  ioo  feet  as  recorded  by  the 
camera  to  twenty-five  feet  or  so  for  the  projector.  Accord- 
ingly, when  the  film  was  thrown  upon  the  screen  at  a 
speed  of  sixteen  pictures  per  second,  the  table  appeared  to 
whiz  round  at  a  fearful  velocity. 

If  double  printing  be  associated  with  this  manipulation 
of  the  film  far  more  mirth-provoking  and  astounding  situa- 
tions can  be  produced.  For  instance,  such  stories  as  that 
of  the  magical  apparatus  described  above,  which  spurs  into 
unwonted  velocity  the  traffic  in  a  crowded  street,  may  be 
prepared  as  follows  : — The  camera  is  set  up  in  a  suitable 
position  overlooking  the  thoroughfare,  and  one  film  is  taken 
very  early  in  the  morning,  when  the  traffic  is  either  absent 
or  very  insignificant.  Here  and  there  may  be  a  pedestrian 
or  vehicle,  but  their  presence  only  heightens  the  effect. 
Perhaps  125  feet  of  film  are  expended  upon  this  subject. 
The  camera  is  then  left  until  later  in  the  day,  when  the 
traffic  is  at  its  highest,  and  another  film  is  secured  of  the 
now  busy  street  from  the  same  point  of  view.  Thus  the 
stationary  objects — the  shops,  lamp-posts,  and  so  forth — 
occupy  the  same  relative  positions  in  each  film,  with  the 


THE    REVOLVING    TABLE 


The  puz/ling  trick  effect  of  a  table  rotating  at  dizzy  speed  is  obtained  by  cutting  out  pieces 
of  the  film.     The  white  lines  show  where  excisions  have  been  made. 


THE    SECRET   OF   THE    FAIRY  S   APPEARANCE. 
i.  W'liiie  a  length  of  film  is  being  exposed  the  diaphragm  is  closet!  slowly. 


xx  TRICK    PICTURES  221 

result  that  when  they  are  placed  one  on  the  other  a  single 
impression  of  these  fixed,  inanimate  objects  is  obtained. 
The  second  film,  however,  is  longer  than  the  first — perhaps 
it  is  250  feet  in  length — but  by  cutting  out  each  alternate 
image  its  length  is  reduced  to  125  feet.  The  two  films  are 
now  of  the  same  length ;  one  is  placed  on  the  other,  and 
the  positive  print  is  made. 

When  the  picture  is  thrown  upon  the  screen  the  greater 
part  of  the  wheeled  traffic  is  observed  to  fly  along  in  mad 
haste,  while  here  and  there  a  pedestrian  or  vehicle  is  seen 
sauntering  in  a  very  leisurely  way — almost  at  a  crawl  by 
comparison.  The  latter  are  those  photographed  upon  the 
first  film  which  has  not  been  touched,  while  the  hastening 
vehicles  and  people  are  those  photographed  upon  the  second 
film,  which  has  been  manipulated  into  half  its  length. 

If  the  excisions  are  made  more  heavily,  and  instead  of 
every  alternate  picture  being  cut  out,  three  out  of  four  con- 
secutive images  are  eliminated,  the  results  are  more  ludi- 
crous still.  Suppose  a  man  is  being  pursued,  and  runs  as  for 
dear  life;  if  100  feet  of  this  episode  are  photographed,  and 
the  negative  subsequently  is  reduced  to  twenty-five  feet  by 
manipulation,  the  man  will  not  appear  to  be  running  when 
the  picture  is  shown  upon  the  screen,  but  will  seem  to  be 
eluding  capture  by  a  series  of  long  hops.  In  this  instance 
two  films  and  superprinting  are  requisite  to  give  the  most 
satisfactory  result,  the  runaway  being  recorded  upon  one 
film  and  the  pursuing  crowd  upon  the  second.  Then  while 
the  man  is  shown  to  be  leaping  in  a  most  extraordinary 
manner  down  the  street,  the  crowd  will  be  seen  running 
in  a  perfectly  natural  manner. 

Whereas  the  "stop"  call  is  employed  to  effect  sudden 
appearance  or  disappearance,  a  different  method  is  essential 
for  a  gradual  disappearance.  Let  us  suppose  the  scene 
represents  a  magic  cave  in  which  the  daring  young  hero 
is  imprisoned  by  the  wicked  magician.  Instead  of  the  good 
fairy  springing  into  the  picture  through  a  trap-door  in  the 
floor  of  the  stage,  as  is  the  practice  in  legitimate  pantomime, 
she  is  seen  to  materialise  from  nothing.  The  first  sign  of 
her  advent  is  a  slight  nebulous  haze  in  a  certain  part  of 


222  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

the  picture.  This  mist  grows  stronger  and  stronger,  until 
at  last  it  reveals  the  filmy  outlines  of  the  fairy,  who  in  due 
course  becomes  as  distinct  and  as  clearly  defined  as  the 
young  hero  she  has  come  to  assist.  When  the  moment 
arrives  for  her  disappearance  she  vanishes  in  the  same 
mysterious  manner,  her  body  seeming  to  dissolve  into  thin 
air. 

This  apparition  effect  always  provokes  considerable  in- 
terest and  curiosity.  It  necessitates  the  use  of  a  camera 
of  such  a  design  that  the  film  can  be  driven  both  forwards 
and  backwards,  instead  of  in  the  first-named  direction  only. 
It  must  be  fitted  also  with  a  special  measuring  indicator, 
and  an  easily  adjustable  diaphragm  stop  to  the  lens.  The 
latter  is  of  the  rectilinear  type,  the  results  therewith  being 
produced  more  easily  and  positively  than  by  any  other 
means.  All  these  requirements  are  fulfilled  in  the  "trick" 
camera,  which  is  especially  designed  for  work  of  this 
character. 

For  the  purposes  of  explaining  this  operation  I  have 
obtained  three  films  (see  illustrations)  by  looking  at  which 
the  process  will  be  clearly  understood.  It  is  well  known 
that  as  the  aperture  of  a  lens  is  closed,  the  quantity  of  light 
admitted  to  the  sensitised  surface  behind  is  reduced,  and 
if  this  action  is  carried  out  gradually  by  means  of  the  recti- 
linear stop,  without  any  variation  in  the  length  of  the 
exposure,  the  image  upon  successive  sections  of  the  film 
will  become  fainter  and  fainter  until  nothing  at  all  is 
recorded.  The  reverse  action  takes  place  as  the  lens  aper- 
ture is  increased  in  size  by  opening  the  diaphragm  to  admit 
a  greater  volume  of  light. 

I  will  first  explain  the  operation  in  its  simplest  form. 
The  stop  call  is  given  and  all  the  actors  become  stationary 
while  the  fairy  stands  alert  to  receive  her  cue  to  enter.  The 
operator  notes  the  point  upon  his  indicator  of  the  length 
of  film  used  up  to  the  time  the  stop  call  is  given.  For  our 
purposes  we  will  say  it  is  ioo  feet.  The  operator  continues 
turning  the  handle  at  the  same  speed,  but  while  so  doing 
he  gradually  closes  the  lens  aperture  by  means  of  the  recti- 
linear stop,  so  that  the  images,  owing  to  decreasing  volume 


THE  SECRET  OF  THE  FAIRY S  APPEARANCE. 

2.  The  same  length  of  film  is   re-exposed  after  the  fairy  lias  entered  the   picture,  under 
a  slowly  opening  diaphragm. 


THE   SECRET  OF  THE    FAIRY S   APPEARANCE. 

;  The  effect  of  double  exposure  under  closing  and  opening  diaphragm.  The  subjects 
photographed  t\vic<-  upon  the  same  length  of  film  stand  out  with  uniform  distinctness, 
but  the  fairj  being  photographed  only  once  gradually  materialisi  -  apparently  from  thin  air. 


xx  TRICK    PICTURES  223 

of  light  admitted  through  the  lens,  become  fainter  and 
fainter,  until  at  last  merely  a  haze  is  recorded.  The  effect 
of  closing  the  stop  in  this  manner  is  shown  in  the  first  film. 

The  operator  consults  his  film  register  and  finds  that 
two  feet  of  film  have  been  consumed,  representing  thirty- 
two  exposures,  to  carry  the  picture  gradually  to  extinction, 
the  indicator  accordingly  registering  102  feet  at  the  con- 
clusion of  the  operation.  The  fairy  now  receives  her  cue 
and  steps  into  the  required  position  in  the  picture.  The 
operator  resumes  his  turning,  and  during  the  next  two 
feet  of  film,  that  is,  another  thirty-two  exposures,  he  opens 
the  stop  just  as  gradually  as  he  closed  it,  to  its  former  aper- 
ture, the  image  upon  the  film  thereby  becoming  stronger 
and  stronger  as  increasing  light  is  admitted  through  the 
lens. 

The  effect  produced  by  this  process  is  shown  in  the  illus- 
tration. The  first  picture  taken  after  the  fairy  has  entered 
is  scarcely  discernible;  then  it  becomes  a  slight  haze  in  the 
next  image,  and  as  the  aperture  is  increased  her  form  slowly 
materialises  until  at  last  she  is  quite  as  distinct  as  that  of 
the  other  actor  in  the  scene,  who  meantime  has  retained 
his  rigid  position  during  the  whole  64  exposures.  When 
this  second  series  of  exposures  have  been  completed,  the 
film  indicator  registers  104  feet,  two  feet  of  film  having 
been  used  in  closing  and  another  two  feet  in  opening  the 
lens  aperture. 

Now  if  the  film  is  cut  at  the  point  representing  102  feet, 
and  this  second  part  of  the  film  is  superimposed  upon  the 
first  in  such  a  way  that  the  second  thirty-two  exposures 
coinciding  with  the  opening  of  the  diaphragm  are  laid  upon 
the  thirty-two  exposures  representing  the  closing  of  the 
lens  aperture,  in  the  resultant  positive  the  actor  and  the 
surroundings  will  stand  out  with  uniform  brilliancy 
throughout  the  superimposed  section,  and  be  equal  in  bril- 
liancy and  distinctness  to  the  remainder  of  the  film,  for 
the  simple  reason  that  image  S3 — representing  the  first 
exposure  under  the  opening  of  the  stop  and  consequently 
the  most  indistinct  picture — comes  over  image  1  in  the 
stopping-down  series  of  pictures,  which  is,  of  course,  the 


224  MOVING    PICTURES  chap. 

most  brilliant  picture.  Image  2  comes  under  image  34, 
and  so  on  throughout  the  whole  thirty-two  pictures.  As 
the  pictures  grow  fainter  on  one  film  they  become  corre- 
spondingly stronger  on  the  other  film,  with  the  result  that 
when  the  two  are  overlapped  and  printed  the  sum  of  the 
two  exposures  produces  a  complete  and  fully-detailed  pic- 
ture, the  second  film  supplying  to  the  first  precisely  the 
complement  of  its  incomplete  exposure,  in  the  case  of  each 
image. 

But  this  action  only  affects  the  actor  and  scenery  recorded 
upon  the  two  sections  of  film.  The  fairy,  having  entered 
at  picture  33,  when  the  unstopping  process  was  commenced, 
appears  at  first  very  indistinctly,  like  a  small  patch  of  mist, 
the  nebulous  haze  resolving  itself  into  her  form  slowly 
during  the  successive  thirty-one  pictures.  The  sum  of  this 
double  exposure  is  represented  by  the  third  illustration, 
where  the  fairy  is  to  be  seen  slowly  materialising,  the  other 
parts  of  the  picture  under  the  double  printing  being  of 
uniform  brilliancy  throughout. 

This  was  the  method  adopted  in  the  early  days,  but  it 
was  somewhat  involved,  and  demanded  recourse  to  double 
printing.  The  perfection  of  the  camera  mechanism  has 
enabled  the  process  to  be  considerably  simplified.  Now 
the  operator  makes  a  double  exposure,  with  closing  and 
then  opening  diaphragm  upon  the  same  length  of  film. 
When  the  "stop"  signal  is  given  he  observes  the  indica- 
tion on  his  film  register.  We  will  say  it  is  100  feet,  as  in 
the  previous  case.  The  actor  becomes  motionless  and  the 
operator  resumes  his  turning  while  closing  the  stop  slowly, 
until  102  feet  of  film  are  registered  upon  the  dial,  thirty-two 
exposures,  or  two  feet  of  film  having  been  made  during 
stopping  down.  He  now  winds  the  film  backwards  into 
the  upper  film  box  until  his  dial  registers  100  feet  once 
more,  the  lens  being  capped  during  this  operation.  Thus 
he  has  regained  the  point  upon  his  film  where  stopping- 
down  commenced,  and  the  two  feet  used  in  this  process 
are  ready  to  be  exposed  again. 

At  this  point  the  fairy  steps  into  position.  The  camera 
is  re-started,   and  while  the  first  thirty-two  exposures  are 


xx  TRICK   PICTURES  225 

being  made  the  lens  aperture  is  opened,  just  as  slowly  and 
gradually  as  it  was  closed  during  the  previous  exposures. 
The  result  is  that  the  portions  of  the  films  which  in  the 
first  instance  received  a  diminishing  volume  of  light  now 
receive  a  compensating  increasing  illumination,  so  that 
the  effect  upon  this  particular  two  feet  of  film,  so  far  as  the 
figure  on  the  left  and  the  scenery  are  concerned,  is  just  as 
if  they  had  been  exposed  once  under  a  full  aperture.  The 
fairy,  however,  having  been  photographed  only  during 
the  second  exposure,  appears  at  first  very  indistinctly.  The 
result  of  the  double  exposure  is  shown  in  the  illustration  ; 
and  the  gradual  appearance  of  the  fairy  may  be  followed 
very  easily.  The  outcome  is  exactly  the  same  as  obtained 
by  double  printing ;  but  it  is  infinitely  easier,  and  far  more 
positive  in  its  action  than  the  delicate  process  followed  by 
Robert  Paul  in  the  early  days — the  dissolution  of  the 
emulsion  from  the  film  by  chemical  action. 

Exceedingly  clever  effects  are  obtainable  under  this 
double  exposure  process.  Transformations  from  one  scene 
to  another  are  carried  out  in  a  manner  that  completely 
eclipse  the  handiwork  of  the  stage-manager  behind  the  foot- 
lights. Success  depends  to  a  great  degree  upon  the  skil- 
fulness  of  the  operator,  because  it  is  imperative  that  the 
stop  of  the  lens  should  be  closed  and  opened  equally,  in 
order  that  the  combined  exposures  upon  each  successive 
image  should  be  equal  to  a  single  exposure  with  a  full 
aperture,  so  as  to  provide  a  uniform  intensity  and  brilliancy 
throughout  all  the  images. 

The  magic  disappearances  are  worked  in  precisely  similar 
manner,  only  in  this  instance  the  character  leaves  the  pic- 
ture at  the  moment  the  last  image  under  the  closing 
diaphragm  has  been  taken.  The  film  is  wound  back  as 
before  to  the  point  where  the  "stop"  call  was  given,  and  is 
subjected  to  a  second  exposure  under  an  opening  stop. 

There  are  no  limitations  to  the  application  of  this  form 
of  trickery.  Spirit  forms  can  be  produced  to  float  in  the  air, 
recourse  to  the  rising  and  falling  lens  front  being  made 
in  conjunction  with  the  manipulation  of  the  diaphragm. 
Sylphs  can   be   materialised   from   evening  vapours;   and 

Q 


226  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

articles  of  furniture  can  be  transformed  into  human  forms. 
Many  of  the  pictures  obtained  in  this  manner  are  startlingly 
weird  and  magical.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  manipulation 
of  the  diaphragm  may  be  considered  as  one  of  the  most 
useful  weapons  of  trickery  and  magic  in  the  hands  of  the 
cinematographic  wizard. 

Another  miracle  is  performed  when  the  public  is  intro- 
duced to  the  bottom  of  the  sea  to  make  acquaintance  with 
the  denizens  of  the  deep,  and  the  strange  mermaid  popula- 
tion. The  audience  is  convinced  that  the  pictures  have  been 
taken  in  the  actual  surroundings,  because  divers  descend 
into  the  depths  and  they  can  see  the  air-bubbles  rise  from 
their  helmets  during  respiration.  The  effect  is  certainly 
very  realistic,  and  as  the  difficulties  attending  under-water 
photography  are  well-known,  one  wonders  how  these  pic- 
tures can  be  obtained. 

They  can  be  produced  by  two  methods.  One  is  by  using 
a  large  tank  with  a  glazed  front,  in  which  the  properties 
are  distributed,  while  behind  is  a  painted  back-cloth  to 
represent  a  submarine  scene.  The  tank  is  filled  with  water, 
and  fish  are  introduced  to  heighten  the  effect.  Divers  are 
employed  to  carry  out  their  evolutions  in  the  tank,  which 
is  brilliantly  lighted,  so  that  the  sensitised  ribbon  in  the 
camera  disposed  before  the  front  window  may  be  able  to 
secure  a  well-defined  image. 

It  is  obviously  impossible  to  introduce  mermaids  actually 
under  water,  since  they  could  not  breathe  there;  so  for  this 
part  of  the  effect  recourse  to  trickery  is  indispensable.  A 
narrow  tank  with  glazed  back  and  front  is  set  up  on  the 
stage,  filled  with  water,  and  a  few  fish.  The  camera  is 
brought  as  near  as  possible  to  this  large  aquarium  and 
photographs  the  tank,  the  pictures  being  slightly  under- 
exposed. 

The  tank  is  then  removed,  and  a  scene  depicting  the  floor 
of  the  sea  is  prepared  upon  the  stage,  with  a  back-cloth 
of  a  grey  neutral  tint.  Perhaps  a  property  ship  to  represent 
a  sunken  wreck  is  set  up  to  enhance  the  effect.  Actresses 
made  up  as  mermaids  disport  themselves  upon  the  sea-bed, 
and  divers  are  observed  to  make  their  descent  from  the 


THE    MYSTERY    OF 


I  UK   SIREN. 


A  beautiful  woman  is  observed    to  be   swimming   gracefully  in  the  depths  of  the  sea,  and  the 
publii    is  mystified  as  to  how    ;he  can  exist  under  water. 


E/3  " 


^         J= 

H       J3 


xx  TRICK   PICTURES  227 

surface,  which  in  this  instance  is  the  "flies"  of  the  stage. 
The  film  which  the  operator  has  exposed  already  upon  the 
stage  tank  is  now  exposed  again  before  this  scene,  and  the 
commingling  of  the  two  produces  a  very  mystifying  effect 
when  shown  upon  the  screen. 

A  fascinating  film  of  this  character  was  made  by  the 
Gaumont  establishment  under  the  title  of  "The  Siren." 
A  beautiful  woman  was  observed  to  be  swimming  and 
diving  in  the  watery  depths  with  various  fish  as  her 
companions.  Her  movements  were  so  graceful  and  natural 
that  it  seemed  impossible  for  them  to  have  been  produced 
while  the  actress  was  suspended  from  the  "flies"  by  the 
aid  of  wires.  How  was  it  done  ?  was  an  expression  I  heard 
on  several  occasions  during  projection  in  the  picture 
palaces.     The  solution  is  very  simple. 

In  the  first  place,  a  large  aquarium  was  set  upon  the 
stage.  It  was  stocked  with  fishes,  which  gambolled  in  a 
realistic  manner,  and  the  tank  was  photographed.  When 
this  exposure  was  completed  the  "Siren"  had  to  be 
introduced. 

The  floor  of  the  stage  was  cleared,  and  upon  it,  like 
a  carpet,  was  laid  a  large  back-cloth  of  a  grey  neutral  tint, 
bearing  faint  designs  of  submarine  growths,  shells,  weeds, 
and  so  forth,  the  work  of  the  scenic  artist.  The  operator 
carried  his  camera  into  the  flies,  and  from  a  central  point 
overhead  set  it  up  with  the  lens  pointing  downwards,  and 
focussed  the  flat  background  spread  out  below.  The  actress 
then  entered,  and  lying  prone  upon  the  back-cloth,  carried 
out  the  movements  necessary  to  simulate  swimming  and 
diving,  moving  the  arms  and  legs  and  writhing  the  body 
to  convey  the  correct  natural  impressions  of  under-water 
movement. 

The  rehearsals  completed,  the  operator  re-exposed  the 
same  film  which  had  been  previously  exposed  before  the 
aquarium,  and  which  had  received  a  faint  impression 
thereof.  When  the  picture  was  projected  the  public  was 
completely  deceived ;  for  the  actress  moved  to  and  fro,  in 
the  company  of  fishes  which  darted  from  point  to  point, 
apparently  unperturbed  by  the  existence  of  the  fair  feminine 

Q  2 


228  MOVING  PICTURES  chap. 

form  in  their  midst.  In  such  operations  as  this,  however, 
where  a  photograph  has  to  be  taken  of  an  aquarium  in  the 
first  instance,  special  attention  has  to  be  devoted  to  the 
lighting  arrangements,  so  as  to  prevent  the  camera  and  the 
operator  being  reflected  upon  the  film — since  the  water  acts 
in  the  same  manner  as  a  mirror. 

The  audiences  in  picture  palaces  are  sorely  puzzled  at 
the  antics  of  motorists,  cyclists,  and  others  who,  being  pur- 
sued by  an  infuriated  crowd  whose  anger  they  have  raised 
for  some  reason  or  other,  elude  capture  by  turning  their 
vehicles  and  running  up  the  vertical  walls  of  houses  and 
buildings.  The  methods  used  in  the  presentation  of  the 
"Siren  "  are  adopted  here  also.  A  cloth  carrying  a  painted 
impression  of  the  wall  with  its  windows,  doors,  stack-pipes, 
and  so  forth,  is  laid  upon  the  floor,  and  the  camera  lens 
is  pointed  thereon  from  a  position  in  the  flies.  The  vehicles 
are  driven  over  this  back-cloth,  and  the  film  conveys  the 
idea  that  they  have  performed  the  impossible  feat  of  riding 
up  the  wall.  The  effect  is  often  improved  by  following  the 
upward  progress  of  the  vehicle.  This  may  be  accomplished 
in  two  ways.  Either  the  camera  is  moved  horizontally 
along  a  track  in  the  flies  in  synchrony  with  the  advance 
of  the  vehicle,  or  else  the  rising  and  falling  front  of  the  lens 
is  brought  into  use.  Another  means  is  to  have  resort  to  the 
"stop"  action,  the  camera  being  rigid  and  the  back-cloth 
moved  across  the  floor  a  certain  distance  between  each 
series  of  exposures. 

For  the  production  of  elaborate  trick  pictures  an  exten- 
sive assortment  of  properties  is  demanded.  When  the 
episodes  are  accompanied  by  ludicrous  catastrophes  and 
smashes  the  public  is  moved  to  extreme  mirth.  In  many 
of  these  pictures  the  performers  are  obtained  from  the 
vaudeville  stage,  being  accomplished  masters  of  knock- 
about, tumblers,  cyclists,  etc.  Suppose  a  chase  over  house- 
tops is  shown,  accompanied  by  falls  through  the  roof,  the 
actors  and  actresses  tumbling  from  floor  to  floor  down  to 
the  basement.  These  pictures  are  prepared  in  sections. 
The  first  scene  represents  the  roof,  which  is  built  up  on 
the  stage,  while  a  back-cloth  affords  a  vista  of  chimney- 


xx  TRICK   PICTURES  229 

pots.  At  certain  points  in  the  roof  are  concealed  trap-doors 
which,  when  the  first  actor  brings  his  weight  on  them, 
collapse  by  the  movement  of  the  bolt  or  other  support 
concealed  beneath.  The  performers  fall  through  the  open- 
ing on  to  a  soft  mattress  within,  the  extent  of  the  fall  being 
about  four  or  five  feet.  In  the  next  scene  members  of  the 
company  in  turn  fall  through  the  ceiling  of  the  sixth  floor 
of  the  building.  This  scene  is  built  up  on  the  floor  of  the 
stage,  the  performers  being  stationed  out  of  sight  in  the 
flies.  The  ceiling  is  represented  by  a  piece  of  painted 
canvas  with  attached  pieces  of  cardboard  and  canvas  to 
resemble  splintered  woodwork  and  broken  plaster.  The 
ceiling  is  intact,  but  when  the  cue  is  given  the  leading  actor 
jumps  or  falls  through  the  painted  canvas  followed  by 
a  mass  of  debris  and  dust.  The  debris  is  merely  properties 
thrown  through  the  opening,  while  steam  or  smoke  driven 
through  the  hole  serves  as  dust.  Perchance  a  party  is  dining 
in  the  room  when  the  tumblers  make  their  unexpected 
entrance  through  the  ceiling,  and  the  scene  undergoes 
a  complete  disturbance  as  a  result  of  the  interruption.  The 
next  floor  is  reproduced  in  turn  in  the  same  manner  upon 
the  floor  of  the  stage,  and  so  on  until  the  players  come  to 
a  dead  stop  in  the  basement,  when  the  cardboard  and 
canvas  debris  produced  by  their  hurried  descent  falls  and 
practically  buries  them.  The  force  of  the  latter  is  increased 
by  men  stationed  in  the  flies,  who  hurl  the  material  down 
pell-mell  from  their  points  of  vantage  through  the  hole  the 
tumblers  have  made.  As  seen  upon  the  screen  it  appears 
as  if  the  house  were  cut  in  two  from  top  to  bottom,  and  the 
audience  were  permitted  to  follow  the  tumblers  in  their 
descent  from  floor  to  floor;  instead  of  which,  as  we  have 
seen,  each  floor  is  reproduced  individually  upon  the  stage. 
There  is  no  indication  whatever  of  this  piecemeal  prepara- 
tion, although  if  the  picture  is  followed  closely  it  is  readily 
apparent,  because  the  performers  in  their  descent  do  not 
comply  with  the  laws  governing  the  momentum  of  a  falling- 
body. 

The  laughable  incidents  showing  men  climbing  labori- 
ously   through    narrow    chimney    flues    are    attributable 


23o  MOVING   PICTURES  ch.  xx 

likewise  to  trickery.  The  chimney  is  merely  a  stage 
property,  and  generally  is  laid  flat  upon  the  stage,  with  the 
operator  and  his  camera  stationed  in  the  flies,  as  in  the 
production  of  the  "Siren";  though,  from  the  public  point 
of  view,  the  players  appear  to  be  crawling  upwards  through 
the  narrow  vertical  brickwork  passage,  gathering  an 
accumulation  of  soot  in  their  advance.  The  latter  is  applied 
to  their  faces  by  the  actors  themselves  as  they  move  forward. 


CHAPTER    XXI 

TRICK    PICTURES    AND    HOW    THEY    ARE    PRODUCED 

IV. — Lilliputian  figures:  "The  Little  Milliner's  Dream  ": 
the  "one  turn  one  picture"  movement:  how  some 
extraordinary  incidents  are  produced:  "The  Ski 
Runner." 

In  Chapter  XVIII.  I  made  some  reference  to  early- 
methods  of  producing  a  class  of  films  in  which  the  prin- 
cipal performers  were  diminutive  figures  scarcely  six  inches 
in  height.  This  kind  of  picture  has  never  lost  its  hold 
upon  the  public.  Indeed,  experience  has  proved  that  it 
constitutes  one  of  the  most  popular  subjects  which  it  is 
possible  to  throw  upon  the  screen,  especially  when  the  tiny- 
actors  and  actresses  are  introduced  into  a  play  having  a 
well-defined  plot  carried  to  a  logical  conclusion. 

I  have  related  how  Paul  obtained  the  effect  of  pigmy 
actors  by  combining  the  possibilities  of  superprinting  and 
photographing  at  varying  distances  from  the  stage. 
This  method  is  practised  nowadays  in  somewhat  modified 
form.  The  stage  is  made  so  deep  that  there  is  no  need  to 
move  the  camera. 

Two  of  the  most  attractive  films  of  this  description  pro- 
duced during  recent  years  were  "The  Little  Milliner's 
Dream"  and  "Princess  Nicotine."  Curiously  enough, 
they  represent  two  widely  divergent  methods  of  achieving 
the  same  result,  as  practised  by  French  and  American 
producers  respectively.  Both  are  associated  with  many 
features  of  interest  in  cinematographic  magic. 

In  "The  Little  Milliner's  Dream,"  a  young  and  charm- 


232  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

ing  milliner's  assistant  is  sent  by  her  employer  to  deliver 
a  creation  to  a  customer.  The  girl  sets  out  with  the 
milliner's  hat-box  on  her  arm.  On  the  way  she  pauses 
to  admire  the  glittering  array  of  precious  stones  and  gew- 
gaws in  a  jeweller's  shop.  While  she  is  gazing  at  the 
articles  longingly  an  old  beau  advances,  makes  himself 
known,  and  tries  to  force  his  company  upon  her.  With  a 
coquettish  shrug  of  her  shoulders  she  rebuffs  him  and 
resumes  her  journey,  but  presently,  overcome  by  the  heat, 
she  sits  down  upon  a  seat  in  the  street  to  take  a  rest. 
Presently  she  falls  asleep. 

In  her  dreams  she  sees  the  lid  of  the  bonnet-box  open, 
and  from  the  interior  steps  the  old  gallant.  At  first  he  is 
no  taller  than  a  coffee-pot,  but  he  grows  until  he  has 
attained  life-size  proportions.  Next,  in  the  space  occupied 
by  the  upturned  lid  of  the  bonnet-box,  a  bevy  of  dancing 
girls  appear.  They  likewise  are  only  a  few  inches  in 
height,  but  they  increase  in  size  until  they  assume  normal 
stature.  To  her  astonishment  each  dancing  girl  proffers 
the  apprentice  a  magnificent  present.  In  an  instant,  as  if 
under  the  magic  spell  of  a  fairy's  wand,  she  finds  herself 
attired  in  the  rich  clothes  of  a  lady  of  rank,  and  taking  the 
arm  of  her  admirer — who,  by  the  way,  shoulders  the 
bonnet-box — they  march  off  together.  The  bonnet-box  is 
suddenly  dropped  and  instantaneously  becomes  a  luxurious 
motor-car.  The  apprentice  passes  through  many  startling 
adventures  in  the  world  of  fashion  and  gaiety,  but  the 
final  scene  reveals  her  still  seated  upon  the  seat,  and  being 
roughly  awakened  by  a  gendarme  from  her  delightful 
dreams. 

The  first  essential  in  such  a  picture  as  this  is  a  deep 
stage,  so  as  to  secure  the  impression  of  distance.  The 
Gaumont  Theatre,  from  which  this  film  emanated,  is  one 
of  the  best  designed  and  largest  in  the  world,  and  the 
preparation  of  such  scenes  as  "The  Little  Milliner's 
Dream  "  offers  them  no  difficulties.  The  street  scene  was 
merely  a  back-cloth  painted  to  resemble  one  side  of  the 
street,  with  its  shops,  the  roadway,  and  the  kerb  of  the 
second   pavement.     Before   this   was   set   up   an   ordinary 


xxi  TRICK   PICTURES  233 

seat,  such  as  is  provided  for  the  convenience  of  pedestrians 
along  the  highway,  and  it  was  upon  this  that  the  little 
milliner  snatched  her  brief  rest  with  the  bonnet-box  beside 
her,  and  but  a  few  feet  from  the  camera. 

When  she  fell  asleep  the  lid  of  the  bonnet-box  was 
opened  by  means  of  invisible  wires,  and  the  lid  came  to 
rest  in  a  vertical  position  against  the  back  of  the  seat,  the 
top  of  the  side  of  the  box  being  level  with  the  back  rail 
of  the  seat.     The  inner  surface  of  the  lid  was  a  dead  black. 

At  this  moment  the  "stop"  call  was  issued.  While  the 
camera  lens  was  closed  the  stage  hands  entered,  took  away 
the  bonnet-box  lid,  and  removed  a  panel  in  the  back-cloth 
of  the  same  shape  and  dimensions  as  the  bonnet-box  lid, 
and  immediately  behind  it.  This  left  a  hole  in  the  back- 
cloth,  through  which  could  be  seen  the  stage  behind.  The 
lens  of  the  camera,  however,  was  on  a  level  with  the  top 
of  the  bonnet-box,  so  that  the  floor  of  the  stage  behind 
the  back-cloth  could  not  be  seen  through  the  panel.  At 
the  extreme  rear  of  the  stage  another  back-cloth  of  black 
velvet  was  hung.  Consequently,  looking  at  the  picture 
from  the  lens  point  of  view,  the  black  velvet,  seen  through 
the  panel  in  the  scenic  back-cloth,  appeared  to  be  the  inner 
surface  of  the  bonnet-box  lid ;  and  the  audience  imagines 
that  what  follows  takes  place  upon  the  inside  of  the  lid, 
whereas  it  is,  of  course,  seen  through  the  back-cloth,  and 
enacted  upon  the  back  or  rear  half  of  the  stage. 

The  camera  is  started  up  again.  Suddenly  the  diminu- 
tive figure  of  the  old  gallant  is  observed  to  rise  from  the 
interior  of  the  bonnet-box.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  he  is  at  the 
extreme  rear  edge  of  the  stage,  against  the  velvet  back- 
cloth,  but  seated  below  the  line  of  sight  of  the  camera  until 
he  received  his  cue.  The  little  milliner  in  her  dream  turns 
her  head  as  if  to  gaze  more  closely  into  the  lid  of  her  box — 
in  reality  she  is  looking  through  the  window  in  the  back- 
cloth  upon  the  scene  taking  place  behind  her.  The  old  beau, 
having  risen  to  his  feet  at  the  extreme  rear  of  the  stage, 
and  six  or  more  times  as  far  away  from  the  camera  as  is  the 
milliner  herself,  appears,  in  accordance  with  the  laws  of 
perspective,  to  be  no  taller  than  a  bottle,  this  peculiarity 


234  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

being  accentuated  by  the  distortion  of  the  lens  as  in  every 
camera. 

The  old  beau  lifts  his  hat  and  instantly  commences  to 
grow  in  size.  This  transformation  was  caused  by  his  ad- 
vancing towards  the  hole  in  the  back-cloth,  which,  as  the 
distance  between  him  and  the  lens  decreased,  caused  his 
stature  to  enlarge.  At  last  the  actor  advanced  to  the  limit  of 
his  forward  movement,  when  his  figure  occupied  the  full 
depth  of  the  opening,  or  of  the  supposititious  bonnet-box 
lid.  At  this  moment  the  camera  paused  to  permit  the  actor 
to  walk  round  the  back-cloth,  representing  the  street,  and 
when  the  camera  was  re-started  he  was  seen  before  the 
bonnet-box  as  if  he  had  stepped  out  of  that  receptacle. 
Being  as  close  to  the  camera  as  the  milliner,  he  was  now 
brought  to  life-size. 

The  spectacle  of  the  dancing  girls  was  carried  out  in  the 
same  manner.  When  the  little  milliner  was  urged  to 
look  into  the  lid  of  the  bonnet-box  once  more,  she  peered 
through  the  back-cloth  window.  To  her  amazement  she 
saw  six  diminutive  dancing  forms  rise  up  as  if  from  the 
interior  of  the  box,  but  in  reality  from  the  floor  against  the 
black  background,  at  the  point  where  the  beau  had  first 
appeared.  They  danced  their  way  to  the  opening  to  a 
point  marked  on  the  floor  of  the  stage  behind  the  scenic 
back-cloth,  thereby  growing  gradually  in  stature.  Then 
the  camera  made  pause  to  permit  the  girls  to  come  round 
the  back-cloth  and  to  assume  the  required  position  before 
the  milliner  near  the  camera,  where  likewise  they  were 
brought  to  normal  size.  They  presented  their  gifts  to  the 
delighted  girl,  and  then  there  was  another  pause  on  the 
part  of  the  camera. 

During  this  stop  the  milliner  changed  her  attire  for  that 
of  a  lady  of  fashion.  At  the  same  time  the  stage  hands 
replaced  the  panel  in  the  back-cloth,  while  the  original 
bonnet-box  lid  was  brought  in  and  restored  to  its  former 
position. 

When  the  camera  began  again  it  recorded  the  beau 
closing  the  lid  of  the  box,  and  while  he  picked  it  up  with 
one  hand  he  offered  his  other  arm  to  his  fair  friend  and 


xxi  TRICK   PICTURES  235 

escorted  her  along  the  street.  Presently  he  dropped  the 
box.  Another  "stop"  call  was  given,  during  which  the 
bonnet-box  was  taken  away  by  the  stage  hands,  and  an 
automobile  brought  into  position  at  the  point  where  the 
hat-box  was  dropped.  When  the  camera  re-started  it  re- 
vealed the  bonnet-box  converted,  like  Cinderella's  pumpkin, 
into  an  automobile.  Entering  the  vehicle,  the  couple  drive 
off  to  the  ball.  The  process  of  "stop  and  substitution," 
which  has  been  described  already,  is  carried  out  from  time 
to  time  to  present  sudden  transformation  effects ;  the 
audience  sees  only  the  continuity  of  motion  as  produced 
by  joining  the  pieces  of  film  together ;  and  they  marvel  at 
the  result.  The  film  was  produced  very  cleverly  and  skil- 
fully, and  it  certainly  ranks  as  one  of  the  masterpieces  of 
the  Gaumont  establishment. 

Another  favourite  artifice,  with  which  some  truly  bewil- 
dering effects  can  be  produced,  is  known  as  the  "stop 
motion,"  or  "one  turn  one  picture,"  movement.  As  may  be 
imagined  from  the  latter  explanatory  title,  it  resolves  itself 
into  a  pause  between  each  picture,  instead  of  continuous 
exposure  to  record  sixteen  images  per  second. 

This  feature  may  be  illustrated  by  reference  to  a  popular 
film  which  appeared  a  short  time  ago,  called  "Animated 
Putty."  A  lump  of  this  material  was  shown  upon  a  table. 
Suddenly  it  was  observed  to  become  agitated,  and  to  resolve 
itself  gradually  into  statues  and  busts  of  well-known  people, 
so  cleverly  wrought  as  to  be  instantly  identified.  In  a 
similar  picture  a  rose  was  seen  to  detach  its  petals,  which 
became  scattered  over  the  floor;  and  just  as  mysteriously 
the  petals  came  together  once  more  and  assumed  their 
former  positions.  Another  picture  shows  "  Boots  "  going  to 
sleep  at  his  task,  and  the  foot-wear  cleaning  itself  while  he 
dreams,  brushes  running  to  and  fro  to  remove  the  dust, 
apply  the  blacking,  and  to  give  a  vigorous  polishing  off. 
Upon  waking,  Boots  gives  vent  to  a  self-satisfied  smile 
upon  beholding  the  completion  of  his  work  without  any 
effort  on  his  part. 

In  reality  this  is  one  of  the  simplest  of  trick  effects ;  but 
it  is  at  the  same  time  one  of  the  most  tedious  to  perform. 


236  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

The  method  can  be  best  explained  by  taking  the  "Animated 
Putty  "  film  as  an  example.  The  lump  of  material  lies 
upon  the  table,  to  be  fashioned  into  a  bust  of  the  King,  of 
the  American  President,  or  some  other  illustrious  per- 
sonage. The  camera  is  set  up.  The  modeller  advances  to 
the  table  whilst  the  shutter  is  closed  and  moves  the  clay 
slightly  towards  the  desired  result.  He  then  steps  out 
of  the  picture,  and  the  camera  handle  is  turned  sufficiently 
to  expose  one  picture  and  to  cover  the  lens  again.  The 
modeller  comes  forward  once  more  and  advances  a  little 
further  with  his  work ;  after  which  he  retires  from  the 
scene,  and  the  second  stage  is  recorded  upon  the  next 
picture.  Again  the  modeller  approaches  the  material  to 
mould  it  a  further  step,  and  upon  his  retirement  the  third 
picture  is  taken.  This  alternate  process  of  shaping  the 
putty  a  little  at  a  time,  and  photographing  every  separate 
movement,  is  continued  until  the  bust  is  completed. 

It  is  essential  that  the  progress  should  be  very  gradual,  or 
else  the  material  would  look  as  if  it  took  shape  by  spasmodic 
jumps,  and  the  illusion  would  be  destroyed.  Some  films 
of  this  character  demand  slighter  movement  between  each 
exposure  than  others.  It  depends  entirely  upon  the  subject. 
It  will  be  observed,  however,  that  this  magical  effect  is  not 
produced  in  accordance  with  the  generally  accepted  prin- 
ciples governing  cinematography.  It  is  merely  a  series  of 
snap-shots  taken  at  certain  intervals,  and  could  be  produced 
just  as  well  by  a  hand-camera  if  one  had  sufficient  plates 
or  film. 

As  may  be  supposed,  the  task  calls  for  unremitting 
patience  and  perseverance,  because  it  is  so  exasperatingly 
slow.  Several  hours  and  even  days  are  often  expended  in 
producing  a  single  film  of  this  character.  If,  for  instance, 
the  film  measures  200  feet  in  length,  no  less  than  3,200 
distinct  operations  have  been  carried  out  and  photographed 
consecutively;  yet  when  such  a  film  is  thrown  upon  the 
screen  at  the  rate  of  16  pictures  per  second,  the  successive 
snap-shots  follow  one  another  so  regularly  as  to  convey  the 
impression  of  continuous  motion. 

The  same  operation  is  practised  with  the  rose,  the  petals 


xxi  TRICK   PICTURES  237 

being  torn  apart  a  little  for  each  successive  exposure,  while 
to  convey  the  effect  of  rolling  along  the  table  they  are 
moved  a  minute  distance  between  each  exposure,  and  sup- 
ported from  behind  in  the  requisite  position  while  the 
shutter  is  opened  and  the  film  exposed  one  picture  at  a  time 
between  each  movement  of  the  rose.  In  the  case  of  the 
"Boots"  who  has  his  work  done  while  he  sleeps,  the 
brushes  are  manipulated  by  invisible  wires.  The  interrup- 
tion in  exposure  can  often  be  detected  unless  the  task  is 
carried  out  with  consummate  skill,  because  the  movement 
appears  to  be  jerky  in  the  picture. 

An  amusing  film  of  this  type  appeared  some  time  ago, 
in  which  cotton  and  wool  appeared  to  be  imbued  with 
life.  The  cotton  arranged  itself  into  fantastic  designs  upon 
the  table,  while  a  stocking  was  knitted  before  the  eyes  of 
the  audience  by  unseen  hands.  So  far  as  the  cotton  designs 
were  concerned  this  was  the  "one  turn  one  picture  "  move- 
ment in  its  simplest  form,  the  design  being  furthered  little 
by  little  between  each  exposure.  With  regard  to  the  mys- 
terious knitting,  this  was  achieved  by  a  combination  of 
the  "one  turn  one  picture"  and  the  "reverse  action" 
artifices. 

While  the  picture  was  being  taken  the  producer  stood 
behind  a  table,  concealed  by  a  black  cloth  somewhat  after 
the  manner  practised  in  "black  magic."  Wrhat  the  camera 
actually  recorded  was  the  unravelling  of  the  stocking  stitch 
by  stitch,  the  needles  being  manipulated  meanwhile  in 
the  opposite  direction.  As  the  stocking  was  unravelled  the 
wool  was  pulled  gently  through  a  tube  extending  up  the 
producer's  sleeve  to  his  back,  where  it  was  secured  by  a 
confederate  and  rolled  into  a  ball.  In  this  way  the  length 
of  wool  between  the  needles  and  the  ball  was  kept  fairly 
taut,  as  would  be  the  case  if  a  person  were  knitting.  Each 
movement  of  the  needles  was  photographed,  the  operator 
setting  the  needles  in  the  requisite  position  and  then  with- 
drawing his  hands  from  the  scene.  The  task  was  continued 
step  by  step  until  the  sock  had  been  completely  unwound, 
the  last  stitch  pulled  out  and  the  end  of  the  cotton  and  the 
needles  were  shown  lying  on   the  table.     The  film   itself 


238  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

was  driven  backwards  through  the  camera  while  the  ex- 
posures were  made,  so  that  when  the  picture  was  printed 
and  thrown  upon  the  screen  the  movements  were  reversed — 
the  destructive  action  recorded  by  the  camera  became  con- 
structive movement  in  the  projector.  The  public  first  saw 
the  loose  end  of  the  wool  and  the  needles.  They  observed  the 
needles  rise  up,  form  the  first  stitch,  and  then  watched  the 
sock  grow  at  an  amazing  speed  until  it  was  completed, 
the  needles  moving-  in  a  perfectly  natural  manner  to  form 
the  stitches.  Further  realism  was  imparted  to  the  picture 
by  the  needles  and  work  being  jerked  every  now  and  again 
to  release  a  little  wool  from  the  ball. 

The  Americans  have  brought  the  "one  turn  one  picture  " 
movement  to  a  high  state  of  perfection,  and  have  produced 
some  astonishing  pictures  as  a  result  of  its  application. 
One   is    introduced  to    a  magic  carpenter's    shop,    where 
tools  are  manipulated  without  hands  and  where  the  wood 
springs  from    the    floor  to   the  bench,    is    planed,  sawn, 
chiselled,  and  fashions  itself  into  a  box  or  whatever  article 
is  desired  by  an  apparently  mysterious  and  invisible  force. 
The    apparently   impossible    is    brought    about   in    this 
instance  by  resort  to  a  combination  of  the  "one  turn  one 
picture,"   the   "reversal  of  action,"   and   manipulation   by 
wires,  strings,  and  threads.     To  secure  the  rising  of  the 
plank  from  the  floor  to  the  bench  the  camera  is  stopped 
when  this  incident  is  reached.     The  plank  is  laid  on  the 
bench  and  a  string  is  attached  to  it.    The  camera  operator 
runs  his  film  forward  a  certain  distance,  say  twenty-four 
inches,  which  is  indicated  upon  the  dial  while  the  lens  is* 
covered.     He  then  gives  the  signal,  and  the  stage  hand, 
by  pulling  the  wire  attached  to  the  plank,  causes  it  to  fall 
to  the  floor.    The  operator  of  the  camera  meanwhile  runs 
the  two  feet  of  film  backwards  past  the  lens,  thus  photo- 
graphing the  plank  falling  to  the  floor.     But  as   he  has 
advanced  his  unexposed  film  two  feet  forwards  and  runs  it 
backwards  during  exposure,  he  has  reversed  the  motion  of 
the  falling  plank,  and  the  first  image  records  the  plank, 
not    as  it  moves  off  the  bench,  but  as  it  strikes  the  floor, 
while  the  other  images  up  to  the  thirtieth  show  it  in  the 


l'WO    NOVEL    I  K 1  <  K    EF  I  E<   I  S. 
A  wwrksh.iii  in  whii  h  tools  move  without  hands.  A.— The  skater  approai  hing  the  factory  •  himney. 


!'■. —  The  result  of  the  collision  with  the  chimney.  The  ski  runner  disappears  into  space. 

THE   SKI    RUNNER. 
methoi       '      pted   foi   the  production  i>f  this  novel  trick  film  are  described  in  the  text. 


xxi  TRICK   PICTURES 


239 


air;  and  the  last  exposure  displays  it  lying  flat  on  the  bench. 
Of  course,  when  the  film  is  thrown  upon  the  screen  the  last 
phase  of  the  action  is  shown  first,  and  the  first  movement 
is  the  last  image,  so  that  the  plank  appears  to  rise  from 
instead  of  falling  to  the  floor. 

The  movements  of  the  saw,  chisel,  and  plane  are  carried 
out  upon  the  "one  turn  one  picture"  principle,  the  tools 
being  moved  a  slight  distance  between  each  exposure.  In 
planing,  when  the  shaving  rises  after  the  tool  has  reached 
the  end  of  its  stroke,  a  piece  of  thread  attached  to  the  shav- 
ing is  given  a  sharp  jerk  to  flick  it  out  of  the  way,  simu- 
lating the  natural  movement  of  the  carpenter,  who  in- 
variably, as  he  draws  the  plane  back  with  his  right  hand, 
whisks  the  previous  shaving  out  of  the  tool  with  his  left. 
The  hammer,  chisel,  and  screwdriver  can  be  manipulated 
by  means  of  threads  to  give  the  varying  positions  of  the 
particular  tool  in  the  driving  process,  and  so  on. 

A  film  which  appeared  some  months  ago  aroused  a  lively 
interest  and  speculation.  It  depicted  a  mysterious  banquet 
where  viands  and  liquors  were  consumed  by  unseen  guests. 
The  knife  came  suddenly  into  action  to  cut  the  bread, 
the  various  dishes  were  served  and  disappeared,  while 
glasses  of  wine  were  filled  and  raised  into  the  air  by  in- 
visible hands;  toasts  were  given,  the  glasses  were  tilted 
for  the  act  of  drinking,  and  became  empty.  The  effect  was 
somewhat  uncanny,  but  it  afforded  a  striking  instance 
of  the  possibilities  attending  the  utilisation  of  the  "one 
turn  one  picture "  movement,  in  conjunction  with  wires 
and  threads.  Each  glass  of  wine  was  lifted  into  the  air 
by  two  invisible  threads,  one  being  placed  around  the 
stem  of  the  glass,  while  the  other  was  connected  to  the 
bowl.  These  threads  were  controlled  by  stage  hands  on 
the  overhead  bridge.  The  glasses  were  lifted  a  slight 
distance  between  each  exposure  and  photographed,  and 
when  the  drinking  act  was  demanded,  while  the  thread 
attached  to  the  bowl  was  held  stationary,  the  second, 
attached  to  the  stem,  was  steadily  raised,  giving  the  desired 
tilt.  The  liquid  as  it  escaped  from  the  glass  fell  to  the 
floor,  but  its  escape  in  this  manner  was  not  shown  upon 


240  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

the  screen,  for  the  simple  reason  that  the  liquid  fell  out 
and  was  caught  in  a  vessel  held  by  a  stage  hand  while  the 
lens  of  the  camera  was  closed,  the  exposure  being  made 
after  the  slightest  quantity  had  fallen  from  the  glass,  this 
process  being  repeated  until  the  toast  was  drained. 

In  the  early  days  of  the  art  superprinting  was  the 
favourite  subterfuge  used  by  the  cinematographer  magician 
to  produce  strange  effects ;  as  I  have  described  already  in 
regard  to  the  pioneer  work  of  Robert  Paul.  The  composite 
construction  of  pictures  has  not  been  abandoned  by  any 
means,  despite  the  advances  in  cinematographic  magic. 
Indeed,  some  of  the  most  startling  productions  seen  to-day 
are  prepared  in  this  manner,  two  or  even  three  films  being 
used  for  the  purpose.  One  of  the  most  telling  recent 
examples  of  this  method  is  evinced  in  the  pictures  of  the 
"ski-runner." 

When  first  seen  the  actor  is  skating  along  a  track  in 
the  usual  manner.  He  approaches  a  towering  factory 
chimney  ;  but  instead  of  avoiding  the  obstruction  he  crashes 
into  it.  The  solid  mass  does  not  bring  about  the  skater's 
extinction,  but  instead  collapses  to  the  ground.  In  the  last 
picture  the  demon  skater  is  seen  ski-ing  through  the  air, 
over  the  clouds,  into  oblivion. 

The  first  part  of  the  scene  was  taken  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  Gaumont  factory,  and  the  chimney  seen  in  film  A 
belongs  to  the  works  of  the  company.  The  skater  seems 
to  strike  the  side  of  the  chimney,  but  as  a  matter  of  fact 
he  glides  behind  it,  as  might  be  supposed,  and  the  film 
is  cut  short  at  this  point.  If  one  examines  the  film  B 
closely  it  will  be  observed  that  the  chimney  there  shown 
under  collapse  is  not  the  same  as  that  depicted  in  film  A. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  scene  was  changed.  When  this  film 
was  taken  in  hand  the  producers  had  heard  that  a  chimney 
was  to  be  felled  in  a  certain  place  by  the  method  of 
cutting  away  the  masonry  base,  and  supporting  the  struc- 
ture temporarily  upon  wooden  members,  which  are  after- 
wards burned  through  to  raze  the  chimney  to  the  ground. 
Accordingly  a  camera  and  operator  were  dispatched  to  the 


xxi  TRICK   PICTURES  241 

scene  to  film  this  interesting  operation,  and  a  striking 
picture  of  the  falling  chimney  was  secured. 

The  combination  which  presented  the  illusion  that  the 
chimney  was  knocked  over  by  the  ski-runner  was  carried 
out  as  follows  : — A  special  back-cloth  of  a  neutral  grey 
tint  was  prepared  for  the  studio  stage.  When  the  ski- 
runner  ran  across  the  stage  before  the  camera  only  the 
actor  himself  was  seen  in  the  resultant  film.  When  this 
film  of  the  ski-runner  was  superimposed  upon  that  showing 
the  demolition  of  the  chimney,  the  former  was  seen  to 
be  forging  ahead  through  the  air  after  apparently  knocking 
the  structure  out  of  his  way.  It  will  be  observed  that 
the  idea  is  so  worked  out  that  the  ski-runner  appears  to 
pursue  the  chimney  as  it  crashes  over,  conveying  the  im- 
pression that  he  is  continuously  pushing  the  crumbling 
mass  out  of  his  way. 

For  the  final  disappearance  of  the  skater  into  thin  air 
two  similar  films  were  prepared.  One  was  exposed  to  a 
cloudy  sky,  the  lens  being  stopped  down  very  severely  to 
give  a  small  aperture  and  an  under-exposed  result.  In  the 
studio  the  skater  once  more  rushed  across  the  stage  before 
the  neutral-tinted  background,  the  lens  stop  in  this  in- 
stance being  more  open  so  as  to  secure  a  stronger  image, 
but  when  the  end  of  his  mad  career  was  required,  the  closing 
diaphragm  was  adopted.  The  first  film  was  superimposed 
on  the  second  to  print  the  positive,  and  the  result  on  the 
screen  is  of  the  ski-runner  moving  like  a  spectre  through 
the  clouds,  to  disappear  finally  into  a  haze.  This  film 
proved  a  conspicuous  success  owing  to  its  novelty  and 
realistic  appearance. 


R 


CHAPTER   XXII 

TRICK     PICTURES     AND     HOW     THEY     ARE     PRODUCED 

V. — "Princess    Nicotine"    and    her    remarkable    caprices 

"  Princess  Nicotine  "  ranks  as  one  of  the  finest  trick 
films  ever  made  in  the  United  States,  and  was  the  handi- 
work of  two  producers  who  rank  as  the  leading  American 
exponents  of  this  strange  craft — Messrs.  J.  Stuart  Blackton 
and  Albert  S.  Smith.  In  its  production,  all  the  subterfuges 
known  to  the  cinematographic  trick  art  were  pressed  into 
service,  rendering  it  completely  mystifying  from  beginning 
to  end. 

Some  years  ago  these  two  artists  were  responsible  for 
a  trick-film,  "The  Haunted  Hotel,"  which  was  so  puzzling 
and  so  cleverly  worked  out  that  it  was  regarded  as  a  mas- 
terpiece of  cinematographic  chicanery.  It  was  a  prodigious 
success;  some  idea  of  its  widespread  popularity  may  be 
gathered  from  the  fact  that  over  150  copies  of  the  subject 
were  disposed  of  in  Europe  alone,  while  its  total  sales 
were  well  over  400  copies;  for  its  success  in  the  land  of  its 
origin  was  quite  as  marked  as  that  which  it  scored  in  the 
Old  World.  For  a  long  time  it  ranked  as  the  finest  trick- 
film  the  United  States  had  produced,  and  it  precipitated 
a  "boom"  in  "haunted"  subjects.  The  success  of  that 
film,  however,  threatens  to  be  surpassed  by  "Princess 
Nicotine,"  which,  in  addition  to  being  a  distinct  novelty, 
is  dainty  in  its  conception,  fascinating  in  its  theme,  and 
finished  in  its  production. 

The  story  of  the  play  may  be  briefly  related.  The  scene 
opens  with  a  young  bachelor  reclining  in  an  armchair  at 
a  table.  Before  him  are  scattered  the  indispensable  adjuncts 


ch.  xxn  TRICK   PICTURES  243 

to  a  bachelor's  comfort — a  box  of  cigars,  a  tobacco-box,  a 
corncob  pipe,  a  box  of  matches,  a  square  white  bottle  stand- 
ing upon  the  cigar-box,  a  bottle  of  whisky  and  a  syphon 
of  soda-water.  In  addition,  there  is  a  large,  round  reading- 
glass  with  a  handle.  The  bachelor  fills  his  pipe,  lights  it, 
leans  back  and  dozes.  Suddenly  the  lid  of  the  tobacco-box 
is  opened  and  a  small  fairy,  Princess  Nicotine,  jumps  out 
and  falls  over  the  pipe,  which  arrests  her  attention  and 
gives  her  a  brilliant  idea.  Laughingly  she  returns  to  the 
tobacco-box  and  helps  out  a  second  and  smaller  sprite, 
whom  she  leads  to  the  pipe  and  unfolds  her  scheme.  The 
fairies  are  no  larger  than  the  man's  hand,  and  the  contrast 
between  their  diminutive  figures  and  the  bachelor  is  de- 
cidedly grotesque.  At  first  sight  one  might  think  the  two 
tiny  forms  were  dolls,  but  their  movements  are  so  grace- 
ful, steady,  and  natural  that  this  idea  is  quickly  abandoned. 

The  two  wee  plotters  pull  out  the  tobacco,  and  the  smaller 
fairy  jumps  into  the  bowl  and  is  buried  beneath  a  layer 
of  the  shredded  weed,  which  is  pushed  in  by  Princess 
Nicotine,  who  afterwards  hides  in  the  tobacco-box. 

The  bachelor  wakes  up,  and  after  yawning  turns  to  his 
pipe  once  more.  To  his  amazement  the  tobacco  will  not 
light,  and  he  looks  at  it  closely.  He  starts  in  amazement 
and  picks  up  the  hand-magnifying  glass  to  examine  the 
contents.  He  reveals  what  he  sees  to  the  public,  for  the 
magnifying-glass  is  held  up  as  it  were  before  the  spec- 
tators, who  see  the  elfish  face  of  the  fairy  peeping  from  the 
tobacco  and  enveloped  in  wreaths  of  smoke. 

The  startled  bachelor  then  inverts  the  pipe  and  raps 
out  the  contents  in  true  smoker's  fashion  upon  the  table, 
emptying  the  fairy  in  the  process.  She  struggles  to  her 
feet  from  the  tobacco  debris,  and  rushes  to  the  tobacco- 
box,  into  which  she  jumps,  pulling  the  lid  down  after  her. 
Princess  Nicotine  thrusts  her  arm  out  of  the  box,  which 
the  bachelor  grasps,  but  instead  of  withdrawing  the  fairy, 
he  seizes  a  rose,  which  he  proceeds  to  smell;  but  he  is 
seized  with  a  violent  fit  of  coughing  caused  by  a  cloud  of 
smoke  which  issues  from  the  flower.  He  examines  the  rose 
through  the  magnifying  glass,  this  view  as  it  appears  to 

R  2 


244  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

him  being  held  before  the  audience  as  before,  so  that  it 
sees  the  form  of  the  fairy  embedded  among  the  petals, 
smoking  a  cigarette.  The  man  drops  the  rose  and  rushes 
out  of  the  room.  The  rose  falls  to  pieces  gradually,  the 
petals  accumulating  on  the  table  and  turning  into  a  cigar. 
The  bachelor  re-enters,  picks  up  the  cigar,  lights  it,  the 
smoke  rises  and  whirls  round  rapidly,  and  presently  rushes 
into  the  white  bottle.  Startled  at  the  extraordinary  action 
of  the  smoke,  the  bachelor  picks  up  the  bottle,  examines 
it  and  sees  the  fairy  imprisoned  within  and  vainly  en- 
deavouring to  escape.  The  man  breaks  the  bottle,  and  the 
fairy  is  seen  standing  on  the  tobacco-box.  She  picks  up  a 
packet  of  cigarettes,  proffers  one  to  the  bachelor,  and 
dances  before  him  on  the  table. 

The  bachelor  commences  to  tease  Princess  Nicotine.  He 
lights  a  match  and  holds  it  towards  her.  She  shrinks 
from  it  in  fear,  and  in  revenge  she  approaches  the  match- 
box, extracts  the  matches,  stacks  them  in  a  pile,  and  lights 
them.  The  magnify ing-glass  is  held  up  as  before,  and  the 
audience  sees  the  pile  of  matches  burning  like  a  big  bon- 
fire. The  last  scene  shows  the  man,  somewhat  terrified  at 
the  blazing  pile  on  the  table,  picking  up  the  soda-syphon 
and  endeavouring  to  quench  the  outbreak,  at  the  same  time 
deluging  himself  in  the  process. 

Through  the  kindness  of  Messrs.  Blackton  and  Smith 
I  am  able  to  explain  how  this  apparently  miraculous  picture 
is  produced,  and  the  various  tricks  employed.  In  describ- 
ing the  "Little  Milliner's  Dream"  I  have  shown  how  the 
appearance  of  a  fairy  can  be  produced,  by  placing  the 
performers  fulfilling  the  role  at  the  very  back  of  the  stage, 
a  long  distance  from  the  camera,  whereas  the  principal 
actor  is  caused  to  carry  through  his  part  but  a  few  feet 
away  from  the  lens.  The  same  effect  can  be  produced  by 
the  aid  of  a  mirror  placed  at  the  back  of  the  scene;  when 
the  players  fulfilling  the  roles  of  fairies  enact  their  parts 
on  a  stage  placed  beside  the  camera,  the  film  records  simply 
their  reflection  in  the  mirror,  and  the  impression  of  ex- 
tremely small  stature  is  conveyed.  By  pressing  the  mirror 
into  service  a  great  saving  in  stage  space  is  gained. 


XXII 


TRICK    PICTURES 


245 


246  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

Two  stages  are  required  for  the  effect :  the  set  stage  on 
which  the  scene  is  built  up,  and  on  which  the  bachelor 
figures,  and  a  temporary  stage  placed  beside  the  camera, 
whereon  the  fairies  carry  through  their  parts.  The  diagram, 
Fig.  1 8,  shows  the  setting  of  the  stage.  The  mirror  is  placed 
some  distance  behind  the  back-cloth  of  the  stage  scene, 
immediately  behind  a  curtained  window,  which  is  really 
an  opening  in  the  back-cloth.  As  the  action  takes  place 
at  night  all  is  darkness  outside  the  window.  The  lens  is 
exactly  flush  with  the  top  of  the  table  in  the  scene,  so  that 
when  the  reflections  of  the  fairies  are  caught  they  appear 
to  be  moving  upon  the  top  of  the  table.  The  mirror  at 
the  back  of  the  stage  is  so  disposed  as  to  appear  to  be  the 
glass  in  the  window  of  the  back-cloth  behind  the  actor, 
and  is  arranged  so  skilfully  as  to  betray  no  evidence  of  its 
existence.  The  stage  set  up  beside  the  camera  is  of  such 
dimensions  that  it  keeps  the  actresses  taking  the  parts  of 
the  two  fairies  within  the  limits  of  the  centre  of  the  table; 
while  its  floor  is  marked  accurately  for  other  purposes, 
which  will  be  described  later.  If  the  principle  adopted 
for  presenting  the  diminutive  players  in  "The  Little  Mil- 
liner's Dream  "  had  been  followed  in  this  instance  instead 
of  using  a  mirror,  the  fairies  would  have  had  to  carry  out 
their  work  at  a  point  equal  to  twice  the  distance  between 
the  camera  and  the  mirror  to  present  the  same  effect.  It 
may  be  pointed  out,  in  passing,  that  during  the  whole 
play  the  actor  fulfilling  the  part  of  the  bachelor  sees  nothing 
upon  the  table  in  front  of  him  beyond  the  articles  placed 
there  for  his  own  comfort. 

The  role  of  Princess  Nicotine  was  fulfilled  by  an  actress 
of  average  height,  while  her  companion  was  a  little  girl 
of  about  twelve  years  of  age.  In  addition,  certain  properties 
were  required,  all  of  which  were  enlarged  facsimiles  of 
objects  in  daily  use.  These  comprised  a  cigar-box  of  huge 
dimensions  capable  of  permitting  the  fairies  to  stand  up- 
right within  it ;  a  huge  corn-cob  pipe,  the  bowl  of  which 
was  as  big  as  a  barrel ;  a  property  match-box  containing 
matches  measuring  about  thirty  inches  in  length,  with  paper 
rolled  round  one  end  to  convey  the  impression  of  phos- 


PRINCESS    NICOTINE  — A    DAINTY    TRICK    MIM. 


This  subject,    produced  by   tin-   Vitagraph  Company  of   Am  rica,   has  proved  to  be  one  of 
the  iii'  ■ — t  popularly  successful  subjects  of  this  description  seen  during  recent  years. 


The  fairy,  buried  in  the  heart  of  the  rose,   smoking   a  cigarette.      The  blossom  is  a  large 
paper  property  flower. 


PRINCESS   NICOTINE. 

The   diminutive  form  of  the  fairy  on  the   table.      The  bachelor,   although    astonished,    in 
reality  sees  nothing. 


xxn  TRICK   PICTURES  247 

phorus  heads;  a  property  packet  of  cigarettes  nearly  six 
feet  in  height,  containing  cigarettes  thirty-six  inches  long 
formed  of  rolls  of  paper  stuffed  with  straw,  and  more  straw 
to  represent  the  tobacco.  These  properties  had  to  be  pre- 
pared carefully  to  scale,  while  the  actresses  themselves  had 
to  be  accomplished  performers.  The  play  demanded 
searching  rehearsals,  as  in  a  trick  picture  of  this  character 
the  slightest  slip  in  the  acting  destroys  the  illusion. 

The  properties  were  used  on  the  second  stage  beside  the 
camera  operator,  and  when  reflected  in  the  mirror  they 
appeared  no  larger  than  the  smoker's  companions  lying 
upon  the  table.  Behind  the  fairies'  stage  a  back-cloth  of 
black  canvas  was  stretched,  so  that  all  their  movements 
were  against  a  black  background,  and  this  served  to  sustain 
the  impression  of  darkness  behind  the  back-cloth  window 
of  the  scene,  beyond  the  window  in  which  the  mirror  was 
placed. 

In  addition  to  these  properties  stage  hands  were  required 
at  various  intervals  to  complete  certain  operations,  but 
were  concealed  out  of  the  sight  of  the  lens  of  the  camera. 
Their  tasks  also  will  be  described  in  due  course. 

In  the  opening  scene  the  bachelor  uses  his  own  materials 
lying  upon  the  table.  The  camera  stops,  and  in  the  interval 
their  place  is  taken  by  the  properties,  which  are  placed 
upon  the  second  stage  to  produce  a  reflection  in  the  mirror. 
When  the  fairy  appears  to  jump  out  of  the  bachelor's 
cigar-box  on  the  table  she  actually  steps  from  the  property 
cigar-box  on  the  second  stage,  the  lid  of  which  is  opened 
by  means  of  a  thread  pulled  by  a  stage  hand  concealed 
behind.  The  antics  of  the  fairies,  which  appear  to  take 
place  on  the  table  before  the  bachelor,  are  carried  out 
upon  the  second  stage,  beside  the  camera,  the  smaller  fairy 
climbing  into  the  property  pipe. 

When  the  bachelor  wakes  up  and  tries  to  light  his  pipe 
the  fairy  stage  properties  are  removed  from  the  fairy  stage, 
and  those  of  the  bachelor  replaced  upon  the  table.  Accord- 
ingly, the  audience  see  him  vainly  endeavouring  to  light 
his  own  pipe,  which  finally  he  examines  with  the  magnify- 
ing-glass.     When    the    scene    revealed    to  the   smoker   is 


248  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

flashed  to  the  public  on  the  screen  in  such  a  way  that  the 
audience  appear  to  be  looking  through  the  magnifying- 
glass,  they  are  not  looking  at  the  bachelor's  pipe,  but  at 
the  property  one.  To  produce  the  effect  of  magnifica- 
tion the  second  stage  is  photographed  directly  from  a 
short  distance  instead  of  by  means  of  the  reflection  in  the 
mirror.  The  smoke  curling  lazily  about  the  smaller  fairy 
and  issuing  from  the  pipe  is  produced  by  steam,  there  being 
a  tube  carried  beneath  the  table  and  connected  to  the 
bottom  of  the  bowl  of  the  property  pipe. 

When  the  scene  is  flashed  back  once  more,  and  the 
bachelor  is  again  seen  seated  at  his  table,  photographing  is 
resumed  of  the  mirror's  reflected  image. 

The  second  stage  is  cleared  again,  and  we  see  the  man 
empty  the  ashes  of  his  pipe  upon  the  table.  The  debris 
containing  the  fairy  is  again  thrown  upon  the  screen  in 
an  enlarged  form,  as  if  through  the  magnifying-glass ; 
that  is  to  say,  the  second  stage  and  its  properties  are  being 
photographed  once  more  to  show  the  little  lady  laughing 
and  running  among  the  smoking,  half-burnt  tobacco.  The 
tobacco  is  straw  and  the  smoke  is  steam. 

The  scene  reverts  to  the  table  showing  the  man.  By 
reflection  the  fairy  is  observed  to  jump  into  her  property 
cigar-box,  leaving  an  arm  protruding.  This  is  a  property 
arm  built  to  scale  in  the  same  manner  as  all  the  other 
properties  used  on  the  fairies'  stage,  and  when  the  man 
seizes  it,  in  reality  he  grasps  the  stem  of  a  paper  property 
rose  of  natural  size  protruding  from  the  cigar-box  standing 
on  his  own  table.  He  turns  the  rose  over  to  smell  it,  but 
beneath  the  table  is  a  stage  hand,  who  puffs  a  stream  of 
smoke  through  a  flexible  pipe  connected  to  the  stalk  of 
the  rose  which  the  bachelor  is  holding;  the  smoke  provokes 
a  fit  of  sneezing  and  coughing,  and  the  bachelor  has  re- 
course to  his  magnifying-glass  to  examine  the  rose.  Again 
the  second  stage  is  brought  into  play,  a  large  property  rose 
lying  thereon,  revealing  the  head  of  the  fairy  within 
smoking  a  cigarette. 

Every  time  the  audience  is  permitted,  as  it  were,  to  see 
what  the  bachelor  discovers  beneath  his  magnifying-glass 


xxii  TRICK   PICTURES  249 

the  second  stage  is  photographed  direct,  the  camera  being 
placed  about  eight  feet  away.  The  fact  that  the  properties 
used  are  of  large  dimensions  does  not  strike  the  public, 
as  they  put  themselves  in  the  position  of  the  bachelor  at 
the  table  and  look  through  the  magnifying-glass  at  the 
articles  lying  upon  the  table,  which  naturally  would  under- 
go tremendous  magnification.  This  "flashing"  to  and 
fro,  as  it  is  called,  is  so  cleverly  accomplished  that  the 
public  does  not  realise  the  fact  that  it  is  being  deceived. 
Everything  that  the  bachelor  handles  on  the  table  is  of 
natural  size ;  every  duplicate  article  which  the  audience 
sees  through  the  magnifying-glass  belongs  to  the  large- 
sized  properties  upon  the  second  stage. 

In  the  next  scene  the  bachelor  is  seen  to  drop  his  rose 
and  flee  from  the  room.  The  rose  instantly  falls  gradually 
to  pieces,  petal  by  petal,  each  of  which  runs  across  the  table 
to  roll  into  and  form  a  cigar.  To  produce  this  effect  re- 
course has  to  be  made  to  the  "one  turn  one  picture  "  move- 
ment described  in  the  previous  chapter.  Each  petal  is 
displaced  by  hand  and  moved  a  slight  distance  by  the 
stage-manager  between  each  exposure.  This  destruction  of 
the  rose  and  fabrication  of  the  cigar  from  the  petals  occupies 
hours,  but  it  passes  across  the  screen  in  the  course  of  a 
few  seconds. 

When  this  strange  act  is  completed,  and  while  the  camera 
is  not  working,  a  real  cigar  is  substituted  on  the  table  for 
that  apparently  made  from  the  rose.  When  the  bachelor 
returns  he  picks  it  up  and  lights  it.  Thenceforward  various 
tricks,  the  principle  of  all  of  which  has  been  described 
already,  are  practised  in  rapid  succession.  For  instance, 
the  bachelor  as  he  puffs  the  smoke  into  the  air  is  astonished 
to  see  it  whirling  rapidly,  instead  of  curling  slowly  in  the 
usual  way.  The  film  is  manipulated  to  produce  this  effect, 
as  explained  in  Chapter  XX.  The  actor  retains  a  fixed 
position,  puffing  while  the  operator  runs  a  few  feet  of  film 
to  record  the  smoke.  After  development  several  images 
on  the  film — perhaps  fifty  per  cent,  of  the  movement  ob- 
tained— are  cut  out,  and  thereby  the  smoke  is  accelerated 
in  its  motion  so  as  to  become  a  whirl  upon  the  positive. 


250  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

While  smoking  the  bachelor  is  somewhat  astonished  to 
see  the  smoke  disobey  natural  laws  by  rushing  into  the 
square  bottle  beside  him.  This  illusion  is  produced  by 
reversal  of  motion.  The  operator  placed  the  cap  upon  the 
lens  and  ran  the  film  forward  a  certain  distance,  observing 
the  length  of  its  travel  on  the  measuring  device.  The 
camera  action  was  reversed,  and  the  film  run  backwards 
the  length  of  the  unexposed  section.  The  smoke  in  the 
bottle  was  supplied  from  beneath  the  table,  there  being  a 
hole  in  the  base  connected  to  a  pipe,  through  which 
steam  was  driven.  Naturally  the  steam  flows  from  the 
mouth  of  the  bottle,  but  by  turning  the  film  backwards  the 
smoke  is  made  to  appear  to  rush  into  the  bottle.  When 
this  incident  has  been  recorded  the  lens  is  capped,  the  film 
run  forward  the  distance  it  was  reversed,  and  everything 
is  ready  for  the  next  episode. 

The  bachelor,  somewhat  puzzled  by  the  behaviour  of 
the  smoke,  picks  up  the  bottle  and  looks  at  it.  To  his 
astonishment  he  sees  the  fairy  within  dancing  and  endeav- 
ouring to  escape.  He  picks  up  his  magnifying-glass  and 
examines  it  closely,  and  the  bottle  containing  the  girl,  as 
seen  through  the  glass,  is  seen  by  the  audience.  The  illu- 
sion is  produced  by  double  exposure,  a  process  fully  de- 
scribed already.  The  bottle  was  stood  against  a  dark 
background  and  photographed.  Then  the  reflected  image 
of  the  fairy  was  photographed  upon  the  same  film.  The 
stage  upon  which  she  acted  was  marked  out,  and  she  had 
to  keep  within  these  limits  while  making  her  assumed 
efforts  to  escape.  Thus  the  whole  of  her  movements  are 
brought  within  the  area  of  the  image  of  the  bottle  already 
secured  upon  the  film,  so  that  when  the  latter  is  developed 
she  appears  to  be  imprisoned  within  the  bottle.  If  she 
should  step  outside  the  limits  during  this  incident,  the 
reflection  would  be  shown  outside  the  bottle  and  the 
illusion  would  be  lost. 

The  man  breaks  the  bottle  with  a  hammer,  and  the  re- 
leased fairy  is  seen  standing  upon  the  cigar-box.  The 
"stop    motion"   has    been    requisitioned   to   produce    this 


The  fairy  imprisoned   in  the  bottle.     This  effect  is  obtained   by  double  exposure. 


PRINCESS    M<  'HIM. 


I  he  fairy,  after  coquetting  with  the  bachelor,  is  driven  away  by  the  smoke  from  hi-  cigaret! 
The  smoke  effect  is  produced  with  steam. 


Enraged,   the  fairy  proceeds  to  build  a  bonfire  with  matches.       The  property  matches  are 
used   for   this  purpose. 


PRINCESS    NICCH  i\K. 

The  fairy,  her  accomplice,  and  properties,   which  are  enlarged  reproductions  of  the  actual 


xxn  TRICK   PICTURES  251 

effect,  the  camera  being  stopped  when  the  bottle  is  broken 
to  enable  the  fairy  to  assume  her  position  upon  the  property 
cigar-box  on  the  second  stage,  the  box  and  bottle  on  the 
table  in  the  meantime  having  been  removed.  Gratified 
at  her  release,  the  fairy  stoops  down  and  draws  out  a 
packet  of  cigarettes — the  property  package  concealed 
behind  her  property  cigar-box  on  the  second  stage— and 
withdrawing  one  of  the  cigarettes  she  offers  it  to  the 
bachelor.  Although  the  cigarette  she  holds  is  three  feet 
long,  the  reflection  in  the  mirror  representing  her  standing 
apparently  on  the  table,  brings  the  cigarette  down  to  the 
natural  size.  The  bachelor  holds  out  his  hand  to  receive 
it,  and  at  this  point  the  "stop"  is  called  to  enable  the 
bachelor  to  place  a  real  cigarette  in  the  position  of  the 
property  one,  the  stage-manager  informing  the  actor  when 
the  real  article  covers  the  reflection,  because  the  actor  him- 
self can  see  nothing.  The  property  cigarette  is  withdrawn, 
and  the  camera  resumes.  The  bachelor  places  the  cigarette 
in  his  mouth,  and  as  the  audience  cannot  detect  the  "stop  " 
it  appears  as  if  he  had  taken  the  cigarette  from  the  fairy. 

The  smoker  lights  the  cigarette  and  takes  a  fiendish 
delight  in  blowing  the  smoke  at  his  diminutive  companion, 
meanwhile  coquetting  with  her.  The  little  lady  resents 
the  smoke ;  and  as  the  bachelor  again  takes  up  the  magnify- 
ing-glass  the  public  apparently  looks  through  it  at  her 
plight.  The  fairy  is  surrounded  with  cigarette  smoke, 
coughing  and  sneezing  and  shaking  her  fist  furiously  at 
the  bachelor,  who  is  out  of  the  picture,  because  in  this 
instance,  as  before,  the  actual  scene  is  photographed  direct, 
and  not  its  reflection  in  the  mirror. 

The  magnifying-glass  is  laid  down  and  the  audience  sees 
the  bachelor  strike  a  match,  from  which  his  tiny  visitor 
shrinks  in  fear.  The  man  laughs  heartily  at  her  discom- 
fiture. The  fairy  is  bent  upon  revenge,  and  steals  stealthily 
towards  the  match-box.  The  bachelor  follows  the  fairy's 
operations  through  the  magnifying-glass,  and  the  scene 
is  flashed  to  the  spectators.  They  see  the  infuriated  fairy 
tearing  out  the  matches  and  stacking  them  into  a  pile.    Of 


252  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

course  she  is  handling  the  property  matches,  which,  as  I 
have  already  said,  are  good-sized  sticks.  She  strikes  a 
match  and  fires  the  pile  upon  her  stage. 

The  scene  is  flashed  back  to  the  table,  but  in  the  mean- 
time the  real  matches  have  been  taken  out  of  the  smoker's 
box  and  arranged  in  a  pile,  which  is  burning  upon  the 
table,  so  that  they  appear  to  have  been  fired  by  the  fairy. 
The  bachelor  picks  up  the  syphon  of  soda-water  and  directs 
a  stream  upon  the  burning  mass  of  matches.  A  final 
glimpse  of  the  fairy  is  given  through  the  magnifying- 
glass  as  a  stream  of  water,  this  time  from  a  hose,  plays 
upon  the  blazing  property  pile,  and  she  falls  over  and 
disappears. 

The  preparation  of  a  film  of  this  character  involves  the 
utmost  care  in  stage  management,  so  that  there  may  be 
no  disconcerting  interruptions  in  the  continuity  of  the 
action.  The  greatest  difficulty  is  to  obtain  exact  over- 
lapping of  the  reflected  and  the  real  articles  upon  the 
bachelor's  table ;  moreover,  as  the  actor  cannot  see  any- 
thing, but  has  to  act  to  an  imaginary  diminutive  person 
on  the  table,  his  every  action  has  to  be  guided  by  the 
producer.  The  actresses  must  be  fault1  ^ss  in' their  move- 
ments. A  film  of  this  description  requires  days  to  prepare, 
especially  since  it  entails  resort  almost  to  every  subterfuge 
known  to  trick  cinematography. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  work  resolves  itself  into  two 
essential  parts — the  photographing  of  the  bachelor  in  his 
sitting-room  when  in  company  with  the  fairies,  as  shown 
by  the  mirror  reflections,  and  the  photographing  of  the 
fairies  and  their  properties.  Whenever  the  latter  have  to 
be  taken,  the  idea  of  looking  through  the  magnifying-glass 
is  adopted,  and  is  artfully  conveyed  by  the  circular  mask 
of  the  picture.  The  magnification  explains  the  apparently 
abnormal  proportions  of  the  articles  used ;  but  the  public 
do  not  realise  them  as  properties  because  they  have  been 
watching  the  little  ladies  on  the  table.  Naturally,  when 
the  magnifying-glass  is  turned  upon  them,  the  audience 
thinks  that  the  fairies  and  their  attributes  have  been  en- 
larged proportionately,  whereas,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  they 


xxn  TRICK   PICTURES  253 

are  not  enlarged  at  all,  but  are  photographed  direct  from 
a  distance  of  only  a  few  feet.  In  such  a  film  as  this  the 
producer,  having  sketched  out  the  work  and  arranged  the 
scenes,  photographs  all  the  incidents  pertaining  to  the 
reflection  one  after  the  other,  and  subsequently  photographs 
the  views  apparently  taken  through  the  magnifying-glass 
upon  either  the  same  or  another  stage.  The  trick  effects, 
such  as  the  conversion  of  the  rose  into  the  cigar  and  so 
forth,  are  taken  at  other  times.  When  the  numerous  strips 
of  film  are  developed  the  various  sections  are  sorted  out 
and  placed  in  rotation,  to  be  connected  up  to  form  one 
continuous  subject  showing  the  natural  progress  of  the 
play. 

Such  is  the  story  of  the  production  of  one  of  the  prettiest 
and  apparently  most  miraculous  trick-films  that  has  ever 
been  seen.  It  should  be  said  that  such  charming  and 
mystifying  productions  as  "Princess  Nicotine"  appear 
only  at  very  long  intervals,  but  their  rarity  is  compensated 
fully  by  their  fascination  and  novelty,  which,  it  may  be 
pointed  out,  is  a  salient  feature  of  the  productions  of  the 
Vitagraph  Company  in  this  particular  field. 


CHAPTER   XXIII 

TRICK  PICTURES  AND  HOW  THEY  ARE  PRODUCED 

VI. — Some  Unusual  and  Novel  Effects 

At  times  a  trick  picture  cannot  possibly  be  produced 
by  any  of  the  methods  1  have  so  far  described.  Accord- 
ingly, the  producer  has  to  rely  upon  his  own  ingenuity 
and  inventiveness  to  cope  with  an  unusual  situation  or 
effect . 

Some  years  ago  an  extraordinary  film  was  produced  by 
Mr.  James  Williamson  which  created  no  little  astonish- 
ment. It  was  entitled  "A  Big  Swallow,"  and  was 
decidedly  startling  in  its  effect.  It  depicted  a  man  to 
whom  the  sight  of  a  cinematographer  acted  as  a  red  rag 
to  a  bull.  On  this  occasion  he  was  goaded  to  such  des- 
peration that  he  advanced  towards  the  camera  with  open 
mouth.  Upon  reaching  it  he  gave  a  terrific  bite,  and 
swallowed  the  whole  apparatus  and  operator,  the  final 
scenes  showing  him  retracing  his  footsteps  apparently 
enjoying  his  strange  meal,  and  satisfied  that  he  had  dis- 
posed of  one  cinematographic  fiend  at  least. 

Curiously  enough,  although  the  idea  adopted  in  this 
instance  offers  illimitable  possibilities,  it  apparently  has 
never  been  exploited  since.  This  particular  film  never 
failed  to  arouse  the  enthusiasm  of  the  public,  and  there 
was  considerable  speculation  upon  all  sides  as  to  how  it 
was  carried  out.  Through  the  courtesy  of  Mr.  William- 
son I  am  enabled  to  unravel  the  mystery. 

It  is  well  known  by  amateur  photographers  that  when 
a  person  is  focussed  a  certain  distance  from  the  camera,  if 
he  steps  towards  the  instrument  the  focus  is  immediately 


ch.  xxin  TRICK   PICTURES  255 

upset.  When  the  individual  is  taken  in  motion,  and  in 
such  a  way  that  he  comes  right  up  to  the  lens,  this  diffi- 
culty is  enhanced.  It  is  impossible  to  keep  adjusting  the 
focus  of  a  cinematograph  camera  while  the  subject  is 
advancing,  because  the  focussing  tube  is  obstructed  by 
the  passing  of  the  film  through  the  gate. 

Accordingly,  Mr.  Williamson  resorted  to  a  combination 
of  the  cinematograph  with  the  racking  bellows  of  the 
ordinary  camera.  The  latter,  of  special  design,  was 
attached  to  the  front  of  the  cinematograph  instrument, 
the  bellows  attachment  carrying  the  lens.  The  camera 
was  set  up,  and  the  distance  between  the  apparatus  and 
the  actor  was  measured  and  marked  off  upon  the  ground. 
Observations  were  made  to  ascertain  at  what  points  the 
actor  in  advancing  should  be  re-focussed,  and  these  points 
were  indicated  upon  the  ground.  The  camera  bellows 
was  then  racked  out  until  the  figure  was  focussed  sharply 
once  more,  and  this  point  was  indicated  upon  the  base- 
board of  the  bellows.  The  figure  then  advanced  still 
closer,  until  a  similar  result  was  observed,  when  the 
bellows  was  racked  out  a  little  farther,  focussed,  and  a 
second  mark  was  placed  on  the  base-board  corresponding 
to  that  on  the  ground.  The  process  was  continued  until 
the  figure  had  advanced  right  up  to  the  camera. 

The  picture  had  to  be  taken  under  the  "stop  motion" 
principle.  At  the  word  "Go  !  "  the  actor  advanced  to  the 
first  mark,  where  he  stood  stock-still,  while  the  camera 
bellows  was  racked  to  the  point  indicating  the  correct 
focus.  The  second  picture  was  taken  under  the  same  con- 
ditions, and  so  on,  until  the  actor's  face  almost  touched 
the  lens  of  the  outstretched  bellows.  In  the  first  photo  the 
actor  was  seen  at  full  length,  with  the  lens  set  in  a  hori- 
zontal line  with  his  mouth.  As  he  approached  the  camera, 
less  and  less  of  the  lower  part  of  his  body  was  to  be  seen 
in  each  successive  picture.  Presently  only  his  head  was 
recorded;  then  nothing  but  the  open  mouth  and  teeth;  and 
at  last,  when  he  almost  touched  the  lens,  nothing  but  a 
black  cavity  was  revealed  upon  the  film. 

The  actual  swallowing  operation  had  now  to  be  carried 


256  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

out.  For  this  purpose  a  large  window  opening  into  a 
darkened  room  was  required.  The  window  was  covered 
with  dead-black  material,  leaving  only  the  opening.  The 
camera  was  set  upon  a  stage,  and  the  window  cavity 
focussed  in  such  a  way  that  the  opening  occupied  the  whole 
of  the  picture.  On  the  inside  of  the  building  a  thick  mat- 
tress was  placed  with  stage  hands  in  readiness.  The 
camera  and  operator  were  set  up  before  this  cavity  as  if 
photographing  the  approaching  irate  individual,  and  were 
photographed  by  a  second  camera.  This  was  intended  to 
represent  the  former  scene  from  the  moment  where"  the 
man's  mouth  only  was  visible  upon  the  picture  in  the 
form  of  a  black  space,  and  for  which  the  opened  window 
sufficed. 

At  the  critical  moment  the  camera  was  pushed  gently 
over  through  the  window  opening,  and  immediately  after- 
wards the  operator  dived  into  the  chasm,  the  last  sign  of 
him  being  his  upturned  feet  as  he  fell  downwards  head 
first  into  the  interior  through  the  window,  to  alight  upon 
the  mattress  placed  below  to  receive  him. 

When  he  had  disappeared  in  this  manner  the  third  scene 
had  to  be  taken.  This  represented  the  actor  stepping  back 
from  the  camera  after  he  had  devoured  his  antagonist. 
When  he  retreated  to  the  mark  on  the  ground  nearest  to 
the  camera,  the  bellows  was  racked  in  to  its  corresponding 
mark  on  the  base;  then  the  second  backward  step  was 
made  by  the  actor  to  the  next  mark  on  the  ground  while 
the  bellows  was  racked  back  to  the  next  mark,  this  succes- 
sion of  stop-motions  being  in  the  reverse  direction  to  the 
advance.  As  the  actor  retreated,  his  teeth  were  seen  to 
close  with  a  snap,  and  the  look  on  his  face  as  it  came  into 
view  revealed  intense  satisfaction  with  his  strange  feast. 
Retreat  was  carried  out  in  this  series  of  steps  until  the 
actor  had  regained  his  original  position. 

In  this  film  the  difficulty  of  keeping  an  advancing  and 
retreating  figure  in  focus  was  solved  very  ingeniously; 
and  when  the  pictures  were  projected  upon  the  screen  the 
illusion  was  perfect,  not  the  slightest  sign  of  a  stop  between 
the  exposures  being  detected.     As  a  matter  of  fact,   the 


xxin  TRICK   PICTURES  257 

advance  and  retreat  series  of  pictures  were  produced  at 
one  time,  the  disappearance  of  the  camera  and  operator 
being  taken  later ;  and  upon  the  development  of  the  nega- 
tives, the  last  episode  was  introduced  between  the  other 
two  at  the  correct  point.  As  the  area  of  the  open  mouth 
when  close  to  the  lens  more  than  covered  the  sensitised 
picture,  the  opening  in  the  blackened  window  as  it 
appeared  upon  the  screen  gave  no  intimation  as  to  the 
manner  in  which  an  ordinary  individual  contrived  to 
swallow  a  camera,  tripod,  and  operator  at  one  gulp. 

During  a  recent  General  Election  infinite  amusement 
was  provoked  by  the  display  upon  the  public  screens, 
which  appear  to  have  become  an  inseparable  feature  of 
such  political  events,  of  a  film  depicting  "The  Dissolution 
of  the  Government."  The  dissolution  was  complete  in  the 
fullest  sense  of  the  word.  A  picture — a  conventional  por- 
trait— of  one  of  the  members  of  the  Cabinet  was  thrown 
upon  the  screen.  Slowly  it  was  observed  to  undergo  a 
strange  and  ludicrous  transformation.  An  eye  slipped 
down  into  the  collar,  the  chin  fell  away,  the  nose  was 
lengthened  abnormally,  and  the  forehead  narrowed  to 
nothing.  The  conditions  presented  were  the  most  extra- 
ordinary to  conceive,  and  the  manner  in  which  the  features 
melted  into  oblivion  leaving  a  transparent  surface,  or  only 
a  series  of  indecipherable  streaks,  aroused  indescribable 
merriment  in  the  crowd.  It  is  certain  that  no  "election" 
film  ever  has  proved  such  a  diversion  as  this  trick  picture. 

The  idea  was  worked  out  by  Mr.  F.  Percy  Smith.  Like 
many  other  displays  of  cinematographic  magic,  its  success 
was  due  to  its  simplicity.  Every  amateur  photographer 
in  his  earliest  days  has  endeavoured  to  force  the  drying 
of  a  glass  plate  after  development  by  placing  it  before  the 
fire.  Invariably  the  effort  ends  in  disaster.  The  gelatine 
melts  and  causes  the  emulsion  to  run  all  over  the  plate, 
producing  grotesque  results. 

In  order  to  produce  this  bizarre  film  a  primitive  appa- 
ratus was  contrived,  consisting  of  a  small  tank  the  back 
and  front  of  which  were  cut  out  to  admit  pieces  of  glass. 
This  tank  was  filled  with  water  and  placed  upon  an  ordi- 

s 


258  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

nary  spirit  stove.  The  cinematograph  camera  was  placed 
in  front,  and  at  the  rear  a  powerful  electric  light  was 
arranged  in  such  a  manner  that  the  illumination  was  dif- 
fused equally  over  the  rear  glazed  part  of  the  tank.  A 
transparency  portrait  of  the  politician  was  then  copied 
upon  a  small  glass  dry  photographic  plate,  developed  and 
fixed.  It  was  then  suspended  in  the  small  tank  between 
the  camera  lens  and  the  electric  light,  so  that  the  illuminat- 
ing rays  passed  through  it,  throwing  the  features  in  the 
picture  up  brilliantly.  The  water  was  heated  by  the  spirit 
lamp  beneath,  the  rise  in  the  temperature  being  fol- 
lowed closely  with  a  thermometer;  and  when  the  requisite 
degree  of  heat  was  obtained,  the  features  upon  the  trans- 
parent plate,  owing  to  the  melting  of  the  gelatine  emul- 
sion, commenced  to  slip  and  slide  about  over  the  glass 
surface,  and  were  caught  in  the  act  by  the  camera. 

Although  the  process  appears  absurdly  simple,  consider- 
able time  had  to  be  expended  upon  the  subject  to  secure 
the  most  grotesque  results.  One  portrait  frequently  had 
to  be  prepared  and  boiled  in  this  manner  six  or  more 
times  before  a  sufficiently  ludicrous  effect  was  secured. 
Owing  to  the  capriciousness  of  the  gelatine  emulsion,  occa- 
sionally the  whole  coating  would  slip  bodily  off  its  glass 
support.  The  temperature  of  the  water  had  to  be  judged 
to  a  nicety,  and  suitable  arrangements  had  to  be  made  to 
prevent  the  boiling  water  from  marring  the  photographic 
effect  upon  the  celluloid  film  by  the  interposition  of  bubbles. 
Our  illustration  shows  a  member  of  the  Government 
under  photographic  dissolution  in  this  manner.  The  treat- 
ment has  almost  infinite  possibilities,  for  no  two  plates 
are  affected  alike.  This  film  appealed  to  the  American 
taste.  After  the  British  Government  had  been  dissolved 
in  this  manner,  a  second  film  had  to  be  prepared,  in 
response  to  the  demand  from  the  United  States,  dealing 
with  the  dissolution  of  the  American  Government  at  the 
time  of  the  last  Presidential  Election,  the  portraits  sub- 
jected to  this  drastic  and  peculiar  treatment  being  those  of 
members  of  the  United  States  Cabinet.     This  film  created 


c      _. 

v.       a 

C 


[Copyright,  C.  ArtiisirbAg. 
THE   LATES1    CRAZE    l\    TRICK    CINEMATOGRAPHY. 
Silho  lettes  with  models. 


xxiii  TRICK   PICTURES  259 

just  as  great  hilarity  in  the  United  States  as  attended  its 
exhibition  in  this  country. 

During  the  past  two  years  the  silhouette  trick  film  has 
come  to  the  front  owing  to  the  novelty  of  the  fundamental 
theme  and  the  successful  combination  of  humour  with 
mystery.  We  all  know  the  old  shadowgraph  play,  wherein 
the  actors  carry  through  their  parts  behind  a  white  sheet 
before  a  powerful  light,  which  casts  their  shadows  upon 
the  screen.  The  idea  is  now  applied  to  cinematography. 
One  or  two  films  of  this  character  made  their  appearance 
some  time  ago  from  foreign  sources,  but  it  has  been  left 
to  an  English  experimenter,  Mr.  C.  Armstrong,  to  reduce 
this  ingenious  trick  subject  to  an  exact  science. 

In  an  American  attempt  in  this  direction,  living  actors 
were  used,  but  the  outcome  was  scarcely  happy,  inasmuch 
as  the  trick  effects  were  very  limited,  being  confined  mostly 
to  weird  contrasts  in  the  sizes  of  the  figures  thrown  upon 
the  screen,  arising  from  the  proximity  of  the  actor  to  the 
light.  If  he  stood  near  the  illuminant  his  stature  was  that 
of  an  immense  giant,  while  if  he  enacted  his  role  near  the 
screen,  his  shadow  was  just  life-size.  Mr.  Armstrong  has 
improved  upon  this  method  by  resorting  to  the  use  of 
models,  constructed  of  flat  material,  with  jointed  limbs,  like 
dolls,  in  order  to  secure  ludicrous  poses  and  situations  and 
impossible  statures. 

Seeing  that  only  silhouette  figures  are  required,  it  seems 
a  very  simple  and  easy  matter  to  fashion  the  models  and 
move  them  through  their  parts  to  obtain  the  desired  effect ; 
but  such  is  far  from  being  the  case.  Both  preparation  and 
manipulation  demand  unremitting  care  and  patience.  It 
may  be  pointed  out  at  once  that  exclusive  use  has  to  be 
made  of  "the  one  turn  one  picture  "  movement,  the  models 
being  shifted  a  small  fraction  of  an  inch  between  each 
exposure.  When  one  has  a  group  of  figures  to  move  in 
this  manner,  the  work  is  exceedingly  tedious,  weeks  often 
being  spent  upon  the  production  of  a  single  film. 

When  Mr.  Armstrong  embarked  upon  this  enterprise 
he  concluded  that  the  work  could  be  accomplished  without 

s  2 


260  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

any  great  effort,  but  he  was  soon  disillusioned.  Moreover, 
he  found,  to  his  dismay,  that  in  order  to  produce  really 
striking  trick  effects,  combined  with  complex  movements, 
perfect  in  every  detail,  it  was  not  only  the  construction  of 
the  models  which  presented  many  difficulties  and  required 
great  mechanical  skill,  but  that  the  most  intricate  part  of 
the  work,  involving  a  vast  amount  of  patience  and 
extremely  delicate  manipulation,  proved  to  be  the  actual 
taking  of  the  negatives.  Innumerable  failures  attended 
the  first  attempts.  It  was  only  after  months  of  practice, 
and  after  he  had  devised  numerous  special  accessories, 
that  Mr.  Armstrong  gradually  brought  his  methods  to 
perfection.  The  outcome  of  his  perseverance  was  seen  at 
the  Palace  Theatre,  London.  The  film  was  entitled  "The 
Clown  and  his  Donkey,"  and  it  provoked  the  audience  to 
unrestrained  mirth. 

Such  work  not  only  demands  the  conception  of  a  suitable 
subject,  its  adaptation  to  technical  requirements,  and  the 
preparation  of  the  negatives  to  express  humour  and  produce 
movements  portraying  distinct  traits  of  character  and 
temper ;  but,  as  I  have  said,  the  construction  of  the  models 
presents  singular  difficulty,  in  view  of  the  complexity  of 
the  movements.  It  is  indispensable  that  the  person  who 
takes  the  negatives  should  also  construct  the  models,  the 
mechanical  peculiarities  of  which  must  be  understood  to  a 
nicety. 

The  supplementary  devices  necessitated  by  the  work  seem 
to  be  without  limit ;  and  to  overcome  the  constantly  recur- 
ring technical  obstacles,  it  is  essential  that  the  operator 
should  be  endowed  with  quite  exceptional  mechanical 
resourcefulness;  otherwise  he  will  be  baulked  time  after 
time.  Frequently  he  will  find  himself  faced  with  a  diffi- 
culty, successful  extrication  from  which,  without  compro- 
mising the  subject  upon  which  he  is  working,  will  tax 
his  ingenuity  to  the  last  degree. 

The  most  lucrative  field  for  silhouette  trick  cinemato- 
graphy should  lie  in  its  application  to  the  production  of 
animated    advertisements    and    caricatures;    for  the    idea 


[Copyright,  ( '.  Ariiutrong 
THE    POSSIBILITIES   OF   TRICK   SILHOUETTE   CLNEMATOGRAPHY. 


A  quaint  advertisement  film. 


Mr.  Asquith  i>: 


A  novel  curtain  idea. 


^   ^i,  *%k    %    ^ 


■£j       :.J{       -"^       >JJ 


xxin  TRICK   PICTURES  261 

possesses  the  indispensable  attribute  of  novelty,  which  is 
the  mainspring  of  commercial  success. 

As  for  caricature,  despite  the  promising  look  of  the  field, 
there  are  certain  practical  obstacles  to  success  :  first,  the 
time  occupied  in  production,  and  second,  a  hostility  on 
the  part  of  the  theatres  to  political  films  of  a  party  charac- 
ter— an  attitude  easily  explainable,  as  it  is  the  aim  of  such 
establishments  to  appeal  to  one  and  all. 

We  give  a  few  illustrations  showing,  in  caricature, 
Mr.  Asquith  speaking.  The  various  attitudes  clearly  show 
the  wonderful  possibilities  of  silhouette  trickery,  and  also 
demonstrate  strikingly  what  can  be  done  by  a  skilful 
operator  with  finely  executed  models.  The  ones  in  the 
illustration  are  made  of  metal. 

In  regard  to  advertising,  the  innovation  is  unquestion- 
ably of  real  importance,  and  I  am  told  that  use  has  been 
made  of  it  with  conspicuous  success  by  a  prominent 
European  cigarette  manufacturing  company.  This  concern 
acquired  a  film  measuring  300  feet  in  length,  which  figured 
continuously  in  the  programmes  of  the  picture  palaces. 
It  was  most  ingeniously  conceived  and  worked  out,  the 
actors  being  a  large  burly  figure  endowed  with  a  movable 
nose,  which  changed  from  snub  to  aquiline,  a  baby  boy, 
and  a  chimpanzee,  all  of  which  characters  are  shown  in 
the  illustration.  The  movements  were  carried  out  with 
perfect   realism.     The  burly  figure  is  at  one  side  of  the 

stage,   while  the  words,    "The   Best    Cigarette   is " 

appears  at  the  top  of  the  picture. 

The  chimpanzee  and  the  baby  come  forward  from 
opposite  sides,  each  picks  up  a  rod  from  the  ground,  by 
means  of  which  the  letters  forming  the  name  of  the  firm 
are  jerked  up  alternately.  They  then  drop  the  rods;  a 
box  comes  flying  along,  and  is  caught  by  the  monkey, 
who  tenders  it  to  the  baby.  The  latter  takes  out  a  cigarette, 
which  he  throws  across  the  stage  straight  into  the  burly 
figure's  mouth;  he  then  does  a  somersault  across  the 
monkey's  back,  steps  on  to  one  of  the  hands  of  the  large 
figure,  and  after  he  is  raised  to  the  requisite  height,  the 


262  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

baby  produces  a  match  and  lights  the  cigarette.  The 
burly  man  puffs  away,  demonstrating  his  satisfaction  with 
the  quality  of  the  cigarette  by  facial  contortions.  In  the 
meantime  the  baby  has  descended,  and  the  large  figure 
having  lowered  the  hand  holding  the  cigarette  leisurely, 
the  baby  seizes  it,  and,  placing  it  in  his  mouth,  sends 
forth  a  big  puff  of  smoke. 

The  effect  of  this  absolutely  novel  advertisement  seems 
to  have  been  extraordinary  in  Germany.  One  company 
after  another  is  being  formed  in  that  country,  systematising 
publicity  in  the  picture  halls,  affiliating  a  number  of  them 
under  contracts  involving  sole  rights  for  showing  adver- 
tising films  on  terms  of  payment  according  to  the  length 
of  film  shown.  The  halls  seem,  naturally,  to  prefer 
humorous  and  trick  films  to  sober  industrial  subjects. 
Things  seem  to  move  more  slowly  in  this  country.  Many 
halls  would  no  doubt  welcome  good  trick  advertising  films, 
which  would  yield  them  an  additional  substantial  income, 
and  at  the  same  time  would  amuse  and  mystify  their 
audiences. 

Finally,  we  would  refer  to  the  excellent  purposes  to 
which  this  invention  is  being  applied  in  the  matter  of 
announcement  films,  to  replace  the  conventional  lantern 
slides.  A  typical  subject  of  this  description,  "Ta-Ta, 
Come  Again,"  is  illustrated.  The  actors  comprise  a  baby 
elephant,  a  jackdaw,  a  chimpanzee,  and  a  tiny  monkey. 

The  elephant  and  jackdaw  alternately  draw  letters  from 
a  box  and  throw  them  into  the  air  to  form  the  title.  The 
last  letter,  N,  while  being  slowly  raised  into  position  by  the 
elephant,  is  snatched  up  by  the  jackdaw,  who  flies  away 
to  set  it  in  position.  The  tiny  monkey  then  appears, 
carrying  an  exclamation  sign,  which  he  balances  on  the 
tip  of  one  of  his  feet,  and  finally  tosses  into  its  place.  He 
then  steps  on  to  the  tip  of  the  elephant's  tail.  The  chim- 
panzee now  advances,  seizes  the  elephant  by  the  trunk,  and 
pulls  him  sliding  off  the  stage. 

Silhouette  trick  films,  the  production  of  which  has 
become  the  speciality  of  this  manufacturer,  lend  them- 
selves   to    vast    development.      I    have    seen    some    sub- 


xxin  TRICK   PICTURES  263 

jects  produced  by  European  and  American  firms  which 
represent  possibly  the  high-water  mark  of  this  form  of 
magic  cinematography.  But  the  enterprise  has  one  dis- 
tinct disadvantage.  The  preparation  of  the  films  is  slow, 
and  the  process  is  unavoidably  expensive. 

Novelty  in  trick  cinematography,  which  is  essential  to 
popular  success,  is  difficult  to  hit  upon.  Some  years  ago 
Mr.  Robert  Paul  experimented  with  a  new  idea,  the  result 
of  which  is  shown  in  the  illustration.  The  strange  poses  of 
the  actor  will  occasion  interest  and  speculation  as  to  how 
they  were  obtained.  The  camera,  while  the  exposures  were 
being  made,  was  revolved,  the  actor  on  the  stage  mean- 
while maintaining  his  feet.  The  resultant  pictures  con- 
veyed the  impression  that  the  subject  photographed  was 
rolling  over  and  over,  and  flying  through  the  air.  This 
idea  does  not  appear  to  have  been  exploited,  although  it 
should  offer  opportunities  to  produce  some  highly 
bewildering  effects. 

Time  and  cost  are  the  most  adverse  factors  in  this 
ramification  of  moving  pictures.  The  market  could 
absorb  four  times  the  number  of  trick  subjects  that  are 
produced  at  present,  so  long  as  they  were  comparable  with 
"The  Little  Milliner's  Dream"  and  "Princess  Nicotine." 
But  their  popularity  would  not  always  compensate  the 
producer  for  the  time  and  expense  of  the  preparation. 
Under  the  present  conditions  governing  the  manufacture 
of  trick  films,  distinct  arrangements  and  facilities  must  be 
provided  for  their  manufacture,  so  as  not  to  disturb  the 
routine  preparation  of  ordinary  subjects.  These  are  the 
main  reasons  why  to-day  trick  films  worthy  of  classifica- 
tion in  the  first  rank  are  so  rarely  seen — the  majority  of 
so-called  trick  films  are  pure  inanities.  In  fact,  the  trick 
film  of  the  highest  order  is  in  danger  of  extinction,  because 
for  every  trick  film  that  is  produced  half  a  dozen  ordinary 
film  plays  can  be  placed  on  the  market. 


CHAPTER    XXIV 

ELECTRIC     SPARK    CINEMATOGRAPHY 

Although  we  commonly  think  of  the  human  senses  as 
very  acute,  yet  in  reality  they  possess  many  imperfections. 
For  instance,  our  vision  is  too  slow  to  follow  the  excessively 
rapid  and  brief  movements  of  insects.  Strive  as  one  may, 
one  cannot  detect  the  flapping  motion  of  a  fly's  wing,  or 
follow  the  different  methods  of  flying  practised  by  the 
dragon-fly  and  the  bee.  I  have  spoken  early  in  this  work 
of  Marey's  wonderful  researches,  which  were  spread  over 
a  prolonged  period,  and  carried  out  with  the  express  object 
of  extending  our  knowledge  of  animal  motion. 

Marey's  experiments,  however,  were  limited  in  their 
scope,  as  he  soon  realised.  The  dry  glass  plate  was  not 
a  convenient  medium  for  recording  the  impressions  of 
rapid  motion,  while  extreme  difficulties  were  encountered 
in  connection  with  the  illuminant  and  the  exposure.  These 
drawbacks  became  baffling  when  it  was  attempted  to  record 
the  movements  of  insects.  He  endeavoured  to  solve  the 
problem  by  concentrating  a  pencil  of  brilliant  sunlight  upon 
a  condenser,  so  as  to  secure  such  a  powerful  luminous 
cone  of  light  as  to  enable  an  exposure  to  be  made  in 
i /42,000th  of  a  second. 

Marey  wrestled  with  the  task  in  a  most  determined 
manner,  and  his  efforts  were  supported  by  eminent  physio- 
logists in  other  countries;  but  the  obstacles  were  so  for- 
midable and  the  available  resources  so  limited  that  they 
could  not  arrive  at  any  practical  result.  It  has  been  left 
to  Monsieur  Lucien  Bull,  the  accomplished  assistant 
director  of  the  Marey  Institute,  to  overcome  the  difficulty. 

Through    his    courtesy    I    am    enabled    to    describe    his 

264 


ch.  xxiv  ELECTRIC  SPARK  CINEMATOGRAPHY     265 

fascinating  researches,  as  well  as  the  peculiar  and  efficient 
apparatus  he  has  evolved  for  the  purpose.  The  beautiful 
and  highly  interesting  results  he  has  achieved  are  shown 
in  the  accompanying  illustrations. 

It  was  obvious  at  the  outset  that  the  familiar  cinemato- 
graph camera  and  its  system  of  operation  were  unsuited 
to  recording  such  excessively  rapid  movements  as  take 
place  in  the  oscillation  of  a  fly's  wing.  Intermittent  motion 
was  quite  out  of  the  question.  No  device  working  on  this 
principle  was  capable  of  enabling  one  hundred  exposures 
or  more  to  be  made  in  the  short  space  of  one  second.  If 
it  were  attempted  the  film  would  only  be  torn  and  twisted 
before  it  had  moved  twelve  inches.  In  its  place  continuous 
motion  on  the  part  of  the  film  was  imperative,  and  finally 
this  requisite  was  supplied  in  a  decidedly  novel  manner. 

The  general  characteristics  of  the  apparatus  conceived 
and  fashioned  by  Monsieur  Bull  may  be  gathered  from 
the  illustrations.  As  the  usual  illuminants  were  unsuited  to 
photography  of  extremely  rapid  motion,  recourse  was  had 
to  the  electric  spark,  which  is  of  tremendous  luminous 
intensity.  These  sparks  are  generated  at  uniform  intervals 
and  as  rapidly  as  the  exigencies  of  the  experiment  demand. 
In  order  to  grasp  the  details  of  the  installation  a  vertical 
sectional  diagram,  Fig.  19,  is  given,  and  by  its  means 
the  design  and  operation  of  the  apparatus  may  be  gathered. 

Instead  of  the  ordinary  camera  there  is  a  cylindrical 
wheel  R,  mounted  rigidly  upon  a  shaft  supported  on 
brackets  at  either  end.  The  flat  rim  of  this  wheel  carries 
the  sensitised  film,  which,  as  the  wheel  is  13J  inches  in 
diameter,  is  42^  inches  in  length.  This  band  is  of  the 
standard  width  and  is  sufficiently  long  to  receive  fifty-four 
pictures  of  the  ordinary  cinematographic  dimensions 
during  one  revolution  of  the  wheel.  As  the  pictures  are 
only  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  depth,  the  deformation 
arising  from  the  impression  being  made  upon  a  curved 
surface  is  so  slight  as  to  be  unworthy  of  consideration. 
The  arrangement  adopted  has  the  advantage  of  enabling 
the  wheel  to  be  rotated  very  rapidly,  so  that  consecutive 
pictures  may  be  taken  at  very  brief  intervals  of  time. 


266 


MOVING   PICTURES 


CHAP. 


As  the  work  is  carried  out  in  the  laboratory  in  full  day- 
light, the  wheel  carrying  the  ribbon  of  sensitised  film  is 
enclosed  in  an  octagonal  light-tight  box  B,  the  upper 
half  of  which  is  hinged  so  that  when  the  box  is  dismounted 


W  2 


and  taken  into  the  dark-room  it  can  be  opened  easily  to 
permit  the  exposed  film  to  be  withdrawn  and  a  new  strip 
inserted. 

The  shaft  upon  which  the  cylinder  revolves  is  fitted  with 


xxiv      ELECTRIC  SPARK  CINEMATOGRAPHY      267 

an  interrupter  /,  whereby  the  primary  circuit  of  the  induc- 
tion coil  A  may  be  broken  at  regular  intervals  during  the 
revolution  of  the  wheel.  If  desired,  as  many  as  2,000 
interruptions  can  be  made  in  one  second,  by  rotating  the 
wheel  at  a  very  high  speed,  if  the  necessities  of  the  experi- 
ment demand  such  a  high  number  of  exposures ;  each 
interruption  producing  an  electric  spark  in  the  spark  gap 
E  placed  behind  the  condenser  C.  This  condenser  con- 
verges the  luminous  rays  into  the  objective  O,  which  is 
mounted  in  front  of  the  travelling  sensitised  ribbon. 

The  lens  is  mounted  in  a  small  box  V  attached  to  the 
front  vertical  face  of  the  octagonal  box,  the  latter  being 
pierced  at  this  point  to  permit  the  light  to  pass  from  the 
objective  to  the  film  behind.  In  this  lens  box,  between 
the  back  of  the  objective  and  the  exposure  aperture,  there 
is  a  mirror  M,  attached  at  its  top  to  a  horizontal  rod 
having  a  milled  screw  head.  When  the  mirror  is  in  the 
position  shown  in  the  diagram,  the  image  reflected  therein 
through  the  lens  is  thrown  on  to  a  ground-glass  screen  D, 
set  in  the  top  of  the  lens  box.  This  serves  consequently 
as  a  view-finder.  When  the  exposures  are  to  be  made  the 
screw  controlling  the  mirror  is  turned,  and  this  swings  the 
mirror  upwards  like  a  flap  until  it  lies  flat  against  the  under 
side  of  the  ground-glass  D,  forming  a  light-tight  joint. 

The  wheel  carrying  the  sensitised  film  is  driven  by  an 
electric  motor,  the  shaft  of  the  wheel  being  extended  beyond 
the  box  on  one  side  to  carry  a  small  grooved  pulley,  the 
drive  from  the  motor  being  transmitted  through  a  small 
belt.  The  motor  may  be  driven  at  varying  speeds,  so  that 
the  number  of  exposures  per  second  may  be  varied  accord- 
ing to  the  revolutions  of  the  box  completed  in  that  period 
of  time. 

The  interrupter — also  mounted  outside  the  film-box — 
whereby  the  make  and  break  in  the  primary  circuit  of  the 
induction  coil  is  controlled,  and  consequently  the  frequency 
of  the  spark  between  the  points  E  in  the  secondary  coil 
circuit,  is  a  disc  of  ebonite,  into  which  are  compressed 
fifty-four  strips  of  copper  spaced  equidistantly — each  strip 
corresponding  to  a  picture  on  the  film — which  are  pressed 


268  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

by  two  metal  brushes  as  in  the  commutator  of  the  ordinary 
dynamo.  As  the  copper  strips  in  the  ebonite  disc  pass 
beneath  these  two  brushes  the  electric  circuit  of  the  induc- 
tion coil  is  opened  and  closed,  thereby  producing  an  elec- 
tric spark  in  the  secondary  circuit  of  the  coil.  The  intensity 
of  the  spark  is  augmented  by  means  of  a  small  condenser 
L,  which  is  placed  in  parallel  in  the  secondary  circuit. 

The  sparks  are  produced  between  two  pointed  magnesium 
electrodes,  less  than  i/i2th  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  while 
the  spark  is  about  i/25th  of  an  inch  in  length.  The  spark  is 
very  rich  in  the  ultra-violet  rays,  which  possess  a  powerful 
photographic  quality.  In  order  that  these  rays  shall  not 
be  absorbed  during  their  passage  through  the  condensers 
C,  the  latter  are  made  of  Iceland  spar.  To  secure 
improved  results,  a  small  condenser  c  is  sometimes  placed 
immediately  in  front  of  the  spark-gap  E.  The  general 
arrangement  of  the  apparatus  for  operation  is  shown  on 
page  266,  the  whole  being  mounted  upon  a  bench  with  the 
induction  coil  upon  a  shelf  beneath. 

The  photographs  obtained  in  this  manner,  however,  are 
purely  of  a  silhouette  character,  and  often  it  is  very  difficult 
to  interpret  correctly  the  movement  of  the  wings  of  an 
insect  from  such  a  result.  In  order  to  obviate  this  draw- 
back, Monsieur  Bull  introduced  a  stereoscopic  system, 
wherein  two  lenses  are  mounted  side  by  side  before  the 
film  box,  with  two  spark-gaps  in  the  same  circuit.  This 
enables  two  sparks  to  be  produced  simultaneously  with 
each  interruption  of  the  primary  circuit,  to  give  two  images 
of  the  object  upon  the  sensitised  celluloid  films. 

In  order  that  the  two  exposures  should  be  made  upon 
the  films  exactly  at  the  same  time,  a  special  type  of  shutter 
had  to  be  evolved,  whereby  the  exposure  apertures  were 
opened  simultaneously  at  the  critical  moment  when  the 
cylinder  commenced  to  revolve,  and  which  closed  in  concert 
when  the  rotation  was  completed,  because,  as  the  films 
were  travelling  continuously,  there  was  no  necessity  for  an 
alternate  closing  and  opening  shutter  movement,  as  is 
required  in  ordinary  cinematography  working  upon  the 
intermittent  motion  principle.     The  interval  between  the 


xxiv      ELECTRIC  SPARK  CINEMATOGRAPHY       269 

sparks  acts  in  the  same  manner  as  a  shutter  swinging 
across  the  lens,  and  serves  to  secure  a  succession  of  in- 
stantaneous pictures  upon  the  films.  The  images  are 
obtained  in  such  rapid  succession  that  there  is  no  pos- 
sibility of  the  films  becoming  fogged  through  the  objective 
apertures  being  open  the  whole  time  the  wheel  completes 
a  revolution.  The  two  sparks  being  in  the  same  circuit, 
they  must  be  produced  in  absolute  synchrony. 

The  crucial  question  was  how  to  open  and  close  the 
shutter  simultaneously  at  the  critical  moments.  This  was 
solved  in  an  ingenious  manner.  The  shutter  itself  is  made 
of  brass  and  is  placed  close  to  the  film.     There  are  two 


iiiiiiijkn  ;;v-piiaijijiiji 

IMHIWiHUrl  L "  *  I  lliliiMiiJIj  I 


1? 


Fig.  20.— The  Ingenious  Stereoscopic  Shutter  to  the  Bull  Camera. 


apertures,  side  by  side,  corresponding  to  the  size  of  the 
image  upon  the  cinematograph  film. 

The  operation  of  the  shutters  is  shown  in  Fig.  20. 
When  the  cylinder  is  at  rest,  the  exposure  holes  are  closed 
by  a  single  curtain  A,  consisting  of  a  thin  sheet  of  steel 
of  sufficient  length  to  cover  the  two  holes.  It  is  held  in 
position  by  means  of  an  electromagnet  controlling  an  ex- 
tended spring.  When  the  cylinder  commences  to  revolve 
the  spring  connected  to  the  shutter  is  released  under  an 
electric  impulse  discharged  through  the  electromagnet. 
The  shutter  falls,  exposing  the  two  apertures  /i  and  J2. 
When  the  cylinder  has  completed  its  revolution,  another 
electric  impulse  releases  a  second  steel  curtain  B,  held  in 
position    by   a   second   spring,    controlled  by   an    electro- 


270  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

magnet,  so  that  it  drops  also  and  falls  over  the  exposure 
holes.  This  system  is  both  simple  and  positive  in  its 
operation,  and  it  may  be  pointed  out  that  this  control  is 
quite  independent  of  the  interrupter,  which  works  in  con- 
junction with  the  electric  spark. 

The  interval  of  time  elapsing  between  each  picture  is 
determined  by  means  of  a  tuning  fork  making  50  double 
vibrations  per  second,  which  operates  an  electric  signal. 
This  tuning  fork  is  set  up  in  such  a  manner  that  the  ends 
of  its  vibrating  tongues  are  photographed  upon  the  film 
throughout  the  experiment.  As  the  vibrations  of  the 
tuning  fork  are  known,  it  is  only  necessary,  in  order  to 
determine  the  interval  of  time  between  each  exposure,  to 
count  the  number  of  photographs  taken  successively  during 
a  complete  vibration  of  the  tuning  fork.  As  a  result  of 
experiment,  however,  it  has  been  found  that  the  ear  can  be 
trained  to  determine  with  astonishing  accuracy  the  speed  at 
which  the  apparatus  revolves — and  consequently  the 
number  of  pictures  taken  per  second — by  the  succession  of 
sparks  produced  by  a  tuning  fork  the  vibrations  of  which 
are  known.  This  means  that  in  conjunction  with  the  photo- 
graphic record,  the  speed  at  which  the  exposures  were 
made  can  be  determined  without  effort,  and  this  velocity 
can  be  varied  very  easily.  In  addition,  a  measured  scale, 
engraved  on  glass,  is  placed  in  the  field  of  the  lens, 
whereby  the  investigator  is  enabled  to  determine  the  exact 
displacement  of  the  insect  in  the  field  of  vision  within  a 
given  period.  Such  is  the  apparatus,  devised  so  far  back 
as  1904,  with  which  Monsieur  Lucien  Bull  has  accom- 
plished some  remarkable  work  of  incalculable  value  to 
science,  and  with  striking  precision. 

I  will  now  proceed  to  explain  how  the  photographs  are 
taken.  In  the  first  place,  in  order  to  obtain  natural  and 
conclusive  data  regarding  the  flight  of  insects,  it  is 
imperative  that  they  should  be  cinematographed  while  in 
full  liberty,  but  the  point  arose  as  to  how  to  control  the 
instrument  so  that  the  camera  and  film  did  not  commence 
to  revolve  until  the  moment  the  insect  entered  the  field 
of  the  lens.     The  habits  of  insects  vary  greatly.     Some  fly 


M.    LUCIEN    BULL'S   COMPLETE   APPARATUS. 


THE    NOVEL   CAMERA   SHOWING   STEREOSCOPIC    LENS. 
laking  2,000  moving  pictures  pei   second.    -Seepage  265. 


<    s 


xxiv      ELECTRIC  SPARK  CINEMATOGRAPHY       271 

off  immediately  they  are  released,  while  others  hesitate  for 
a  minute  fraction  of  a  second.  As  the  apparatus  makes 
only  one  complete  revolution  at  a  time,  and  that  in  the 
fraction  of  a  second,  the  control  has  to  be  of  such  a  finely 
adjusted  character  that  the  record  obtained  is  of  move- 
ment purely  and  simply,  and  not  of  the  insect  in  a  quiescent 
state  preparatory  to  flight. 

Another  question  was  how  to  induce  the  insect  to  cross 
the  field  of  the  lens.  All  insects  instinctively  fly  towards  a 
light.  The  apparatus  therefore  was  set  near  a  window, 
the  insect  being  released  from  the  side  away  from  the 
window,  so  that  in  order  to  reach  the  light  it  had  to  traverse 
the  field  of  the  lens.  As  the  latter  is  very  small,  it  was 
essential  that  the  release  should  be  carried  out  in  such  a  way 
that  the  insect  did  not  fly  above  or  below  the  field  of  the 
lens  during  exposure  of  the  film. 

At  first  sight  these  obstacles  appeared  insurmountable. 
It  was  obvious  that  the  release  of  a  fly  from  the  hand 
would  be  too  slow  and  uncertain,  while  the  movement  of 
the  insect  after  securing  its  liberty  would  be  unnatural, 
because  no  matter  how  delicately  it  might  be  handled, 
there  would  be  the  liability  of  injuring  its  fragile  frame. 
The  governing  point  was  to  devise  ways  and  means  of 
opening  the  shutter  just  at  the  moment  the  insect  started  to 
fly  from  one  side  of  the  lens  field  to  the  other,  under  com- 
pletely natural  conditions. 

This  delicate  problem  was  resolved  by  Monsieur  Bull  in 
an  ingenious  manner,  but  not  before  he  had  carried  out 
innumerable  experiments  attended  by  dispiriting  failures. 
At  last  he  succeeded  in  evolving  means  whereby  the 
insect  automatically  and  instantaneously  opened  the  shutter 
of  the  camera  at  the  moment  it  started  to  fly.  The  artifices 
by  which  this  end  was  achieved  are  shown  in  Fig.  21. 
The  system,  however,  had  to  be  modified  for  different  types 
of  insect.  That  marked  A  was  used  for  the  ordinary 
house-fly  and  for  dragon  flies.  It  comprised  a  small  pair 
of  pincers,  or  clamp,  which  held  the  fly  firmly  captive  by 
means  of  a  small  electromagnet,  but  in  such  a  way  as 
not  to  inflict  the  slightest  injury.     This  clamp  was  intro- 


272 


MOVING   PICTURES 


CHAP. 


duced  in  the  stereoscopic  shutter  electrical  circuit.  The 
two  legs  of  the  clamp  have  a  natural  tendency  to  fly  apart 
under  the  action  of  a  spring,  but  are  held  closed  by  a 
tooth  at  the  end  of  a  rocking  arm,  mounted  on  one  leg, 
engaging  with  a  fixed  tooth  on  the  second  leg  of  the  clamp. 
The  latter  is  placed  in  an  electrical  circuit  with  the  shutter 
of  the  camera.  When  all  arrangements  are  completed,  the 
experimenter  closes  this  circuit.  This  action  causes  the 
electromagnet  of  the  clamp  to  pull  down  the  projecting 
end  of  the  toothed  arm  ;  the  two  legs  are  allowed  to  fly 


Fig.  21. — The  Ingenious  Devices  Employed  by  M.  Lucien  Bull  to 
Release  the  Insect  at  the  Critical  Moment. 


apart,  liberating  the  insect,  and  as  the  clamp  releases  the 
fly  the  stereoscopic  shutter  is  opened. 

This  system,  however,  was  of  no  avail  in  connection 
with  the  Hymenoptera  group  of  insects,  since  wasps,  bees, 
and  similar  insects  hesitate  slightly  before  they  seek  safety 
in  flight.  Consequently  the  device  B  was  evolved.  This 
consists  of  a  small  glass  tube,  in  which  the  insect  is  intro- 
duced at  one  end.  The  opposite  end  is  cut  obliquely,  and 
is  fitted  with  a  very  light  hinged  shutter  of  mica,  having  a 
fragile  spring,  which  covers  about  one-half  of  the  opening. 
The  spring  closes  the  electric  circuit  operating  the  stereo- 
scopic shutter  of  the  camera. 


xxiv      ELECTRIC  SPARK  CINEMATOGRAPHY      273 

Lei  us  suppose  a  bee  is  to  be  cinematographed  in  flight. 
It  is  pushed  head  foremost  into  the  free  end  of  the  tube, 
which  is  large  enough  to  carry  it  comfortably,  and  the 
half-closed  mouth  is  pointed  towards  the  window.  The 
insect  naturally  endeavours  to  approach  the  light,  and 
accordingly  crawls  along  the  tube  until  at  last  it  reaches 
the  mica  shutter,  beneath  which  it  endeavours  to  escape. 
As  it  crawls  out  of  the  tube  it  lifts  the  mica  flap,  and  the 
circuit  is  broken.  But  the  shutter  does  not  open,  because 
at  this  moment  the  operator  himself  closes  the  contact. 
By  this  time  the  insect  has  emerged  a  sufficient  distance 
from  the  tube  to  complete  its  final  preparations  preliminary 
to  flying  away.  Just  as  it  springs  from  the  tube  the  mica 
shutter  falls,  the  electrical  circuit  is  closed  once  more,  the 
shutter  is  opened,  and  pictures  of  the  bee  on  the  wing  are 
recorded  upon  the  celluloid  film. 

For  the  Coleoptera  group  of  insects — beetles — where 
there  is  still  a  more  marked  hesitation  before  flight,  the 
device  C  was  prepared.  In  this  instance  Monsieur  Bull 
compels  the  weight  of  the  insect,  which  is  relatively  heavy, 
to  establish  the  necessary  contact  to  operate  the  shutter.  A 
glass  tube  without  an  oblique  mouth  is  used  for  this  pur- 
pose, and  instead  of  the  mica  flap,  a  very  light  horizontal 
plate  of  aluminium,  balanced  by  a  counterweight  at  one 
end,  is  passed  through  the  tube.  This  plate  is  mounted 
on  a  central  pivot,  and  extends  a  certain  distance  from 
either  end  of  the  tube.  The  counterweight  is  slightly 
lighter  than  the  weight  of  the  insect,  and  rests  in  contact 
with  a  platinum  point.  The  beetle  is  introduced  into  the 
tube  at  this  end,  and  crawls  along  the  rod  towards  the 
opposite  end.  When  it  has  passed  about  half-way  through 
the  tube,  and  has  crossed  the  fulcrum  of  the  beam,  it 
causes  the  contact  end  to  rise  like  a  see-saw,  thereby 
breaking  the  electrical  contact.  In  this  case,  as  with  the 
device  B,  the  operator  recloses  the  break  in  the  circuit. 
The  beetle  continues  its  journey,  and  finally  emerges  from 
the  tube  upon  the  flattened  end  of  the  beam,  on  which  it 
completes  its  arrangements  to  fly  away.  Directly  it  leaves 
the  platinum  beam,    the    latter,    under  the  action  of    the 


274  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

counterweight,  falls  upon  the  platinum  point,  re-establishes 
the  contact,  the  circuit  is  closed,  the  shutter  is  opened,  and 
the  flight  is  caught  upon  the  sensitised  band. 

Monsieur  Bull  has  devised  a  wide  variety  of  these 
ingenious  appliances,  whereby  he  is  able  to  secure  the 
flight  of  any  insect,  and  by  the  employment  of  which  the 
chances  of  failure  are  reduced  to  the  minimum.  Indeed, 
when  the  apparatus  is  set  up  correctly,  is  in  the  hands  of 
a  skilled  operator,  and  every  arrangement  has  been  com- 
pleted satisfactorily,  failure  can  only  result  from  one  cause 
— the  refusal  of  the  insect  to  fly  away.  The  best  results 
are  obtained  from  insects  which  are  in  a  fresh,  healthy 
condition.  If  they  have  been  imprisoned  for  too  long  a 
period,  or  are  fatigued,  the  chances  are  that  the  results 
will  be  very  disappointing.  The  records  which  Monsieur 
Bull  has  secured,  showing  insects  in  flight,  illustrate  some 
very  interesting  facts,  and  are  of  far-reaching  value  from 
the  scientific  point  of  view.  At  the  present  moment  they 
are  of  additional  interest  owing  to  the  absorbing  fascina- 
tion of  aviation,  inasmuch  as  they  enable  us  to  study  with 
ease  the  movement  of  the  wings  of  powerful,  speedy  fliers, 
which  hitherto  has  been  impossible  under  natural  con- 
ditions, owing  to  the  excessive  velocity  with  which  the 
wings  move,  and  the  brief  character  of  the  motion.  With 
such  an  apparatus  as  I  have  described,  any  very  rapid 
motion  can  be  cinematographed,  for  the  system  is  very 
elastic,  and  capable  of  very  extensive  application. 

Another  vast  field  of  research  which  has  been  opened 
by  the  cinematograph  is  the  study  of  the  flight  of  pro- 
jectiles. This  subject  has  occupied  earnest  attention  among 
military  authorities  for  some  time  past.  A  few  years  ago 
Professor  Vernon  Boys  carried  out  some  wonderful  experi- 
ments in  this  direction,  and  produced  some  very  striking 
results.  His  work  has  been  continued  recently,  by  cinema- 
tographic means,  by  an  eminent  German  investigator,  Dr. 
C.  Cranz,  professor  at  the  Berlin  Military  Academy.  He 
has  succeeded  in  accelerating  the  exposures  of  the  film  to 
such  a  degree  that  500  consecutive  pictures  can  be  taken 
in     i/ioth    of    a    second,    the    exposures    varying    from 


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A    I)RAGO\-FI.V    IN    FLIGHT, 

At  left   is  the  electric  'lamp  from   which   the  insect   has  been   released,  and  at    righl 
the  tuning  fork  to  determine  the  interval  of  time  between  successive  pictures. 


CINEMATOGRAPH    FILM    OF    A    BULLET    FIKKD    THROUGH    A   SOAP    BUBBLE. 


The  flight  of  the   iiiis>ile   may   lie   followed   easily.      It   will   he  seen   that    tin    bubble    hreaks 

noi  when  the  bullet  enters,  but  when  it  emerges. —  See  page  276. 


xxiv      ELECTRIC  SPARK  CINEMATOGRAPHY      275 

1  / 1, 000,000th  to  i/io,ooo,oooth  part  of  a  second,  the  last- 
named  period  being  such  an  infinitesimal  fraction  of  time 
as  to  be  beyond  human  comprehension.  The  pictures 
obtained  are  of  the  standard  dimensions,  and  a  striking 
feature,  despite  the  tremendous  speed  at  which  they  are 
taken,  and  the  extremely  brief  exposure,  is  the  clearness 
and  definition  obtained. 

In  this  instance,  also,  the  electric  spark  is  called  upon 
to  serve  as  the  illuminant  to  enable  the  images  to  be 
recorded  upon  the  sensitised  band,  but  the  means  whereby 
the  interruption  of  the  primary  circuit  of  the  induction 
coil  is  secured  differs  materially  from  that  practised  by 
Bull.  Obviously  the  film  travels  with  a  continuous,  instead 
of  with  an  intermittent,  motion,  the  sensitised  band  in 
this  instance  being  run  over  two  steel  cylinders.  The 
tremendous  speed  at  which  the  film  moves  may  be  gathered 
from  the  fact  that,  at  the  rate  of  exposures  made,  over  280 
feet  of  film  must  pass  before  the  exposure  aperture  in  the 
short  space  of  one  second — more  than  i\  miles  per  minute. 

The  apparatus  evolved  by  this  German  investigator  is 
more  complicated  than  that  of  his  French  contemporary, 
and  the  method  of  operation  is  widely  dissimilar.  The 
arrangements,  too,  for  preventing  the  film  receiving  more 
than  one  series  of  pictures — the  film  is  rotated  before  the 
exposure  aperture  in  the  form  of  an  endless  band — de- 
manded a  special  electrical  contact  control  system,  while 
the  manipulation  of  the  apparatus  varies  according  to  the 
character  of  the  experiment. 

The  results  obtained  are  startling.  Although  taken  at 
such  a  tremendous  speed,  the  pictures  when  thrown  upon 
the  screen  under  normal  conditions  enable  every  motion  to 
be  followed  quite  easily  because  everything  moves  slowly. 
For  instance,  one  can  see  the  hammer  of  an  automatic 
pistol  fall,  and  follow  exactly  what  takes  place  during  the 
whole  firing  operation,  and  the  ejection  of  the  spent  car- 
tridge. Similarly,  when  the  pistol  is  fired,  and  the  bullet 
is  photographed  as  it  emerges  from  the  muzzle  or  when  it 
strikes,  passes  through  and  emerges  from  a  steel  plate,  the 
movement   can  be   followed    with  complete   facility,   as  it 

T    2 


276  MOVING   PICTURES  ch.  xxiv 

appears  to  move  across  the  screen  no  more  rapidly  than  a 
person  walks,  because,  although  the  exposures  are  made 
at  the  rate  of  30,000  pictures  per  second,  they  are  projected 
at  a  speed  of  only  16  pictures  per  second.  By  this  means 
analysis  of  extremely  rapid  motion  in  all  its  details  can  be 
effected — a  result  of  far-reaching  possibilities  to  the  study 
of  ballistics. 

Facilities  are  provided  to  enable  the  progress  of  the 
missile,  both  vertically  and  horizontally,  to  be  measured, 
so  that  the  speed  of  the  projectile  may  be  determined  with 
unimpeachable  accuracy.  Fluctuations  in  the  speed  of  a 
missile  can  be  ascertained  and  investigated.  Suppose  the 
speed  of  the  projectile  is  measured  as  it  emerges  from  the 
arm,  and  again  as  it  reaches  the  end  of  an  extensive  free 
trajectory ;  losses  in  velocity  due  to  resistance  of  the  air 
and  other  causes  can  be  calculated.  Individual  pictures, 
when  enlarged — and  the  sharp,  well-defined  character  of  the 
images  on  the  band  enables  this  enlargement  to  be 
carried  out  to  a  very  wide  limit — supply  a  ready  means  to 
investigate  any  particular  phase  and  phenomenon  at  close 
quarters. 

It  is  not  generally  known  that  about  twelve  years  ago 
the  British  Government  set  up  such  an  installation  at 
Devonport  to  investigate  the  phenomena  of  bullets  in 
flight.  Here  also  illumination  was  carried  out  by  means  of 
the  electric  spark,  but  the  rate  of  exposures  was  consider- 
ably slower.  The  results  of  the  work  of  Monsieur  Bull 
and  Professor  Cranz,  however,  has  opened  up  another 
and  more  wonderful  province  for  the  cinematograph,  and 
the  investigation  of  rapid  motion.  The  efforts  of  these  two 
scientists  prove  conclusively  that  motion  photography  is 
capable  of  recording  the  most  rapid  movements  known 
with  perfect  success,  although  the  circumstances  may 
demand  such  extraordinarily  short  exposure  as  the 
i/io,ooo,oooth  part  of  a  second. 


CHAPTER  XXV 

THE    "  ANIMATED  "     NEWSPAPER 

We  have  seen  how  the  topical  picture  has  developed  into 
one  of  the  most  attractive  and  extensively  appreciated 
phases  of  the  art.  Events  of  annual  occurrence  like  the 
Derby  or  the  Grand  National,  or  those  which  have  been 
advertised  widely  on  all  sides,  such  as  an  aeroplane  race, 
are   always   anticipated   with   a  keen  curiosity. 

At  the  same  time,  however,  there  are  many  incidents  of 
daily  occurrence  which  are  of  absorbing  passing  interest, 
such  as  the  launch  of  a  battleship,  a  railway  collision,  a 
big  fire,  or  a  public  demonstration.  Such  subjects  are  not 
adapted  to  presentation  as  individual  films  of  great  length, 
being  insufficiently  momentous  to  grip  the  public  for 
^pyeral  minjjN^Jn  the  same  way  as  the  International  Yacht 
Race,  or  some  other  dramatic  item  in  our  complex  social 
and    industrial  life. 

For  some  time  occurrences  like  these  were  ignored. 
Sometimes  weeks  slipped  by  without  any  public  event 
being  presented  on  the  screen,  owing  to  lack  of  oppor- 
tunity. 

At  this  juncture  one  or  two  enterprising  firms  conceived 
a  brilliant  idea  of  turning  these  events  to  interesting  and 
profitable  account.  Why  not  secure  short  lengths  of  film 
on  various  subjects  of  passing  interest,  and  join  them 
together  to  form  one  film  between  200  and  350  feet  in  length, 
to  provide  a  regular  weekly  topical  feature?  These  little 
"topicals"  were  secured — a  few  feet  of  this,  and  a  few  feet 
of  that,  subject  depicting  the  most  striking  or  interesting 
phases  in  each  news  feature— and  joined  to  form  a  con- 


/ 


278  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

tinuous    miscellaneous    moving    mirror    of     the    world's 
happenings. 

When  the  idea  was  first  carried  into  execution  the  film 
could  scarcely  be  described  as  "topical."  There  was  no 
attempt  to  serve  up  the  pictures  to  the  public  in  a  "red-hot  " 
condition,  i  The  incidents  portrayed  in  many  instances 
had  passed  beyond  the  allotted  nine  days  of  wonder,  and 
having  been  almost  forgotten,  aroused  but  a  flicker  of 
interest^]  The  experiment  recalled  the  days  when  news- 
papers first  resorted  to  photographic  illustrations ;  when  £<^/K 
the  pictures  were  published  often  two  or  three  days  after  ^ 
the  occurrence  of  the  event  to  which  they  referred. 

Yet  the  results  achieved  sufficed  to  prove  that  a  new 
and  promising  field  in  cinematography  had  been  tapped. 
Great  possibilities  awaited  enterprise  and  energy.  All 
that  was  required  was  to  supply  the  pictures  while  the  events 
were  still  fresh  in  the  minds  of  the  public.  Haphazard 
methods  promised  only  failure ;  a  special  organisation  was 
essential  to  cope  with  the  situation.  In  order  to  emphasise 
the  motive  of  the  undertaking,  the  topical  film,  which  pre- 
sented in  tabloid  form  an  assortment  of  news,  was_given 
a  newspaper  title;,  the  animated  "Chronicle,'  "Gazette," 
and  "Graphic"  appeared;  while  to  render  the  newspaper 
idea  more  pronounced,  the  exteriors  of  the  picture  palaces 
were  emblazoned  with  placards  drawn  up  in  the  most 
approved  newspaper  style. 

In  the  course  of  a  few  weeks,  as  the  operators  displayed 
keener  competition  to  outstrip  rivals  in  securing  the  first 
pictorial  representation  of  something  of  importance,  and 
the  pictures  assumed  a  more  and  more  up-to-date  aspect, 
the  moving  picture  newspaper  established  its  significance. 
Showmen  were  tempted  to  assist  in  the  enterprise  by  being 
able  to  purchase  the  newspaper  film  at  a  lower  price  than 
the  ordinary  subject.  Although  the  an imated  newspaper 
has  been  amongst  us  for  only  a  few  months,  vet  it  has 
already  developed  into  an  institurion.  Many  people  would 
as  soon  think  of  missing  the  "newspaper"  item  as  they 
would  think  of  overlooking  an  opportunity  to  see  the  Derby 
re-run  upon  the  screen. 


xxv  THE  «  ANIMATED  "  NEWSPAPER  279 

From  a  cursory  view  no  difficulty  appears  to  be  attached 
to  the  preparation  of  a  film  of  odds  and  ends  of  topical 
interest ;  but  as  a  matter  of  fact  the  task  is  quite  jts  exacting 
and  strenuous  as  the  production  of  the  morning  news- 
paper. 

"Trie  work  can  be  handled  successfully  only  by  a  firm 
having  an  extensive  organisation,  and  with  better  chances 
of  success  if  it  has  specialised  in  the  ordinary  "topical." 
There  must  be  an  editor  to  direct  operations  and  to  prepare 
the  film.  He  must  possess  a  large  and  scattered  staff,  so 
that  no  part  of  the  world  is  left  uncovered  by  a  cinemato-  -I  c 

/  graph.  His  scouts  must  be  active  and  keen,  always  on  ^ujJ^ 
the__alext,  and  ready  to  secure  on  the  instant  a  few  feet  of  ^cV1 
any  incident  of  importance  in  their  respective  localities.  lu^0a^^ 
In  the  offices  a  number  of  skilled  operators  must  be  ready  ^P^^ 
to  hurry  off  at  a  moment's  notice  to  any  desired  spot. 

The  first-named  emissaries  constitute  the  special  foreign 
correspondents,  while  the  office  staff  feed  the  film  in  the 
same  manner  that  the  newspaper  staff  reporters  supply  the 
columns  of  the  morning  newspaper  with  material. 

There  is  one  feature  in  which  the  man  with  the  camera 
holds  an  undisputed  advantage  over  his  confrere  armed 
with  notebook  and  pencil.  He  gives  a  truthful  pictorial 
J  account  of  what  takes  place,  not  the  garbled  product  of  a 
vivid  imagination.  As  a  result  the  editor  of  the  animated 
picture  newspaper  is  spared  the  menace  which  hangs 
always  over  the  head  of  the  newspaper  director.  He  is 
immune  from  the  pains  and  penalties  of  the  libel  law  ! 

In   order  to  secure  a   more   intimate  impression   of  the 
work  of  the   moving   newspaper,   we  will   go  behind  the 
scenes  of  one  of  the  most  flounshing  and  successful   of       /^^ 
these  animated  news-sheets — llie~Gaumont  Graphic — and  <** 


A' 

</ 


J 


iollow  it  through  its  successive  phases  of  production . 
When  the  proprietors  of  this  pictorial  record  embarked 
upon  this  new  development,  they  had  the  experience  of 
some  twelve  years'  work  in  the  "topical"  field,  and  their 
machinery  and  staff  had  acquired  the  instinct  to  "get  there 
first." 

There  is,  of  course,  the  editorial  sanctum  in  which  the 


V, 


28o  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

r       presiding   genius   holds   autocratic  sway,  and  directs   the 

Cr  .*   many  threads  which  control  the  acquisition  of  news.     At 

his  elbow  the  tape  machine  ticks  merrily  the  livelong  day. 

y  The  telegraphic  ribbon  reels  out  the  bald  announcement 
that  a  big  fire  is  raging  in  the  City,  that  a  devastating 
explosion  has  spread  death  and  ruin  somewhere  in  the 
north  of  Scotland,  or  that  a  Transatlantic  liner  has  run 
on  the  rocks  off  some  remote  part  of  the  coast.  An 
operator  is  rushed  to  the  scene,  and  there  left  to  his  own 
devices  to  secure  a  sensational  few  feet  of  filin.  He  may 
succeed  or  he  may  not ;  it  all  depends  upon  the  circum- 

y  stances  and  conditions.  Maybe  he  may  have  to  wait  four 
or  five  hours  perched  in  an  uncomfortable  position,  but 
if  a  few  feet  of  film  can  be  exposed  to  advantage  he  will 
not  have  failed. 

The  country  is  divided  up  into  districts  where  cinemato- 
•»  J  graphic  reporters  are  retained  in  readiness  for  any  emer- 
j\jd*"  /  gencv>  anc*  they  have  command  over  a  certain  radius 
around  that  centre.  For  instance,  if  an  accident  happens 
in  northern  Scotland  a  telegram  to  the  operator  responsible 
for  that  locality  hastens  him  to  the  spot.  The  editor  of 
the  Gawnont  Graphic  has  bmnch__offices  at  Newcastle — 
which  covers  the  north-east  of  England — at  Glasgow  for 
Scotland,  and  at  Liverpool  and  Manchester  for  the  north- 
west of  England,  the  Liverpool  operators  being  ready  to 
proceed  to  Ireland  or  the  Isle  of  Man  should  the  necessity 
arise.  In  addition,  there  are  what  might  be  described  as 
sub-offices  at  Bristol  and  Birmingham,  whence  any  point  in 
the  Midlands  and  the  west  of  England  can  be  gained,  as 
well  as  another  at  Scarborough,  so  that  the  whole  of  Great 
Britain  may  be  said  to  be  mapped  out  and  covered 
cinematographically. 

As  far  as  the  foreign  areas  are  concerned,  owing  to 
offices  being  established  in  all  the  large  centres  from  China 
to  Peru,  no  difficulty  is  experienced  in  gathering  items  of 
interest  from  all  parts  of  the  world.  Operators  are  search- 
ing constantly  for  films  of  general  interest  from  the 
industrial,  commercial,  scenic,  travel,  or  some  other  point 
of  view,  and  in  the  course  of  their  work  secure  pictorial 


/ 


s 


xxv  THE  «  ANIMATED  "  NEWSPAPER  281 

snippets  of  topical  interest.  As  a  result  a  steady  stream 
of  items  recorded  in  animation  pour  in  constantly  from  all 
parts  of  the  world.  The  European  and  Asiatic  items  in 
the  form  of  lengths  of  film  pass  to  the  French  headquarters 
in  Paris,  while  those  of  Canadian  and  Australian  interest 
flow  to  London.  A  daily  record  of  the  films  of  a  news 
interest  received  from  foreign  correspondents  is  received 
from  France  for  the  London  editor  to  sift  and  select  what 
he  considers  of  interest.  When  this  has  been  done,  he 
telegraphs  to  Paris  for  what  he  requires — so  many  feet  of 
this  and  so  many  feet  of  that  film. 

In  addition,  he  has  a  tabulated  statement  of  what  may 
be  described  as  "fixed"  functions,  such  as  a  race  meeting, 
a  motor  competition,  a  flying-machine  test,  a  society 
wedding,  and  what  not,  to  which  operators  are  dispatched. 

In  due  course  the  small  lengths  of  exposed  film  filter  in 
by  train  and  post.  So  soon  as  they  arrive  they  are 
developed  and  printed.  Proofs  are  handed  over  to  the 
editor  to  be  scanned  and  revised,  sections  which  he 
considers  the  most  suitable  and  likely  to  interest  the 
public  being  snipped  from  each  film-proof,  by  the  aid  of 
the  indispensable  scissors.  Possibly  much  of  the  material 
when  it  reaches  the  editor's  eye  fails  to  win  his  apprecia- 
tion, and  meets  an  inglorious  and  premature  end  in  the 
j  editorial  waste-paper  basket.  A  certain  amount  of  wasted 
effort  is  unavoidable;  for  space,  that  is  to  say,  length  of 
film,  is  limited,  and  when  the  Graphic  appeared  only  once 
a  week,  sifting  was  of  a  searching  character.  When  a 
considerable  amount  of  incident  has  occurred  and  has  been 
cinematographed  during  the  week,  the  selection  process  is 
by  no  means  easy ;  many  interesting  items  find  them- 
selves crowded  out  to  be  held  over  until  the  next  issue,  or 
destroyed. 

As  the  pieces  of_eachfilm  are  selected,  they  are  "pasted  " 
togethej^amj-each  incident  receives  its  full  explanatory 
title_and  sub-title.  These  revised  proofs  are  connected  up 
so  as  to  form  a  continuous  length  of  film.,  and  copies_are 
reeled  off  in  the  printing,  developing,  and  drying  rooms  at 
tip-top  speed,  the  operation  corresponding  with  the  print- 


/ 


y 


/ 


X 


282  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

ing  machine  room  of  the  newspaper.  The  first  complete 
proof  is  submitted  to  the  editor's  approval  by  being  pro- 
jected on  the  screen  just  as  it  will  be  submitted  to  the 
public.  Further  revision  may  be  requisite,  in  which  event 
the  film  undergoes  another  trimming  process  with  the 
scissors,  or  possibly  some  late  news  has  been  received,  and 
space  has  to  be  found  for  its  inclusion  at  the  expense  of 
some  other  item. 

The  "composition,"  or,  as  it  is  called,  the  "make-up," 
of  the  animated  news  film  is  just  as  complex  as  that  of  a 
newspaper  or  magazine.  It  is  essential  that  it  should  be 
diversified  in  its  contents  so  as  to  appeal  to  the  tastes  of  all 


classes  of  the  community.     There  are  the  big  items  which 

"stand  pre-eminent,  and  which  range  from  London  to  South 

America,  and  from   Paris  to  China.     Around  these  have 

to  be  disposed  various  other  features  of  lesser  importance. 

Seeing  that  the  length  of  the  film  newspaper  is  limited 
to  between  500  and  650  feet,  and  is  built  up  of  from 
ten  to  seventeen  subjects  which  vary  in  length  according 
to  their  respective  importance,  careful  discrimination  is 
necessary.  The  public  has  become  hypercritical  in  regard 
to  animated  pictures,  and  the  appeal  has  to  be  made  to  the 
great  majority.  As  a  rule,  endeavour  is  made  to  incor- 
Y^nr^tR  fpgnlar  fpatnrpg  in  parh  iggnp  rSportJis  represented 
by  some  one  or  other  of  the  many  branches  of  athletics 
and  racing;  ^society] finds  itself  displayed  in  a  wedding, 
garden-party,  ball,  or  other  fashionable  function ;  [the 
woman's  pagg  has  its  equivalent  in  the  animated  portrayal 
oTthe  latest  Paris  fashions  as  displayed  by  the  manequins 
— generally  in  order  to  give  an  enhanced  effect  this  section 
is  reproduced  in^coiour^-and  so  forth.  Effort  is  made  also 
to  incorporate,  if  possible,  a  special  function  of  some  de- 
scription performed  by  some  personage  looming  promi- 
nently in  the  public  eye.  Variety  is  the  keynote  of  success 
as  much  in  the  successful  cinematograph  newspaper  as  in 
its  ink-and-paper  contemporary. 

The  Gaumont  Graphic  has  an  extensive  and  influential 
foreign  and  colonial  circulation,  and  accordingly  special 
attention  has  to  be  devoted  to  the  requirements    of   these 


xxv  THE  "ANIMATED"  NEWSPAPER  283 

readers,  or  rather  spectators.  The  special  topical  films 
are  ransacked,  and  little  excerpts  made.  For  instance, 
in  the  Coronation  number  of  the  Gaumont  Graphic,  two 
or  three  of  the  greatest  features  of  the  long  Coronation  film 
were  cut  out  and  pasted  together  to  form  a  prominent 
item  of  news;  the  same  applies  to  the  inter-University  boat 
race  and  other  sports,  the  Derby  and  great  race  meetings, 
the  Football  Final ;  in  short,  to  every  important  annual 
event.  This  procedure  is  necessary,  for  the  animated 
newspaper  reaches  remote  parts  of  the  world,  where  per- 
chance the  complete  film  of  an  individual  event  may  never 
find  its  way. 

One  noticeable  feature  is  the  friendliness  extended  to 
the  cinematographic  news-gatherer,  who  often  meets  with 
greater  appreciation  than  his  confrere,  the  Press  snap- 
shotter.  The  latter,  armed  with  his  small  camera,  often 
allows  his  zeal  and  enthusiasm  to  overstep  his  discretion — 
a  fact  that  is  particularly  noticeable  with  regard  to  society 
and  royal  events.  The  cinematograph  operator,  on  the 
contrary,  being  burdened  with  a  somewhat  cumbrous 
apparatus,  is  forced  to  remain  at  a  fixed  point.  The 
apparent  drawback  is  really  a  blessing  in  disguise,  because 
special  care  is  invariably  taken  to  afford  him  an  advan- 
tageous position.  The  outcome  is  that  cinematographic 
portraiture  ninety-nine  times  out  of  a  hundred  is  far  better 
than  that  secured  by  the  snap-shotting  fiend,  who  thrusts 
himself  forward  and  catches  his  quarry,  perchance,  in  an 
unhappy  moment. 

Yet  the  editor  of  the  film  newspaper  is  not  relieved  from 
worries  and  anxieties.  Cinematography  is  dependent 
mainly  upon  a  bright  light;  thus  the  success  of  a  film,  at 
least  in  Great  Britain,  is  never  certain  beforehand.  When 
the  elements  are  adverse  it  is  difficult  indeed  to  collect  the 
news.  The  operator  may  wait  for  hours  to  film  a  subject, 
or  perhaps  he  makes  his  exposures  in  despair,  and  with  a 
blind  trust  in  luck.  When  heavy  fogs  hang  like  blankets 
over  the  great  centres,  passing  events  of  importance  defy 
recording,  and  it  is  a  sheer  waste  of  film  to  endeavour  to 
secure  pictures.     As  a  result  the  film  newspaper  is  much 


y 


284  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

easier  to  produce  in  summer  than  in  winter,  and  this 
climatic  Tnfluence  probably  constitutes  a  unique  feature 
in  newspaperdom. 

The  animated  newspaper  even  has  its  stop-press  feature ; 
that  is  to  say,  it  can  deal  with  pictorial  records  of  events 
which  occur  after  the  paper  is  being  printed  off  or  has  been 
circulated^  A  short  film  of  some  great  incident  trickles 
into  the  editorial  room.  It  cannot  be  delayed  until  the  next 
issue — by  that  time  public  interest  in  the  item  will  have 
vanished.  Consequently  it  is  rushed  through,  and  all 
subscribers  scattered  throughout  the  country  are  advised 
by  telegraph  that  a  record  of  such-and-such  a  topical  sub- 
ject has  been  obtained,  and  can  be  dispatched  at  once  for 
display  in  the  form  of  supplement  to  the  animated  news- 
paper now  being  shown.  The  late  item  is  sent  out,  and 
"£2^-  prri^nl  nt  th»  pirturft  palace  i^  attached  to  the  end 
oi  the  newspaper  film  already  received,  its  inclusion 
perhaps  necessitating  sacrifice  of  some  other  item  of  less 
importance. 

When  the  GatimontGraphic  first  appeared,  it  was  issued 
weekly,  and  accordingly  corresponded  to  the  weekly 
illustrated  newspaper.  JVmy  it  iq  pnhlished  twice  weejdyT 
and_with_Jjirrpnqprl  slipped.  Indeed,  the  pictorial  news 
film  reaches  its  subscribers  in  the  colonies  and  foreign 
countries  contemporaneously,  or  even  prior  to  the  arrival 
of  the  illustrated  weeklies,  which  are  dispatched  by  mail. 

In  Australasia,  Canada,  India,  and  the  smaller  British 
colonies,  the  idea  of  giving  the  week's  news  in  animation 
has  met  with  a  remarkably  hearty  reception,  inasmuch  as 
it  serves  to  bring  the  world's  happenings  far  more  vividly 
/  before  the  public  in  those  remote  parts  of  the  world  than 
*  can  be  done  in  a  brief  newspaper  cablegram  or  a  single 
photograph  published  in  the  pagesof  the  illustrated 
weeklies.  The  history  of  the  world  is  re-enacted  before 
them ;  they  are  brought  to  the  localities  where  the  episodes 
occurred — a  miracle  of  transportation  not  to  be  effected 
by  any  other  known  scientific  means. 

How  does  the  film  newspaper  affect  the  cinematograph 
theatre?     What  is  the  attitude  towards  the  idea?     Does 


/ 


xxv  THE  "ANIMATED"  NEWSPAPER  285 

the  showman  regard  it  with  favour?  These  are  questions 
which  naturally  occur  to  the  mind.  Opinion  is  best 
reflected  by  the  success  of  the  enterprise.  Now  that  the 
picture  paper  is  published  twice  a  week,  the  expenditure 
of  the  showman  is  doubled  j  but  this  fact  does  not  appear 
to  have  exercised  a  deterrent  influence.  When  the 
Gaumont  Graphic  was  published  weekly,  its  circulation 
approximated  200  copies  per  week.  In  other  words,  200 
showmen  subscribed  towards  this  feature.  This,  by  the 
way  does  not  represent  its  full  circulation,  as  a  single  sub- 
scriber may  control  two  or  more  halls  in  one  city,  and  very 
often  the  one  film  suffices  for  several  picture  palaces  under 
one  control.  These  200  copies  of  the  film  newspaper,  then, 
were  seen,  at  a  modest  computation,  by  several  millions 
of  people  weekly.  Seeing  that—the  subscriber  ls_ unable  to 
hire  the  film  newspaper  for  the  week,  hut  has  to  purchase 
it  outright  at  a  uniform  price  of  2\d.  (5  cents)  per  foot, 
and  that  its  average  length  is  600  feet,  his  outlay  amounts 
to  £b  ($30)  for  a  subject,  the  exhibition  life  of  which  is 
restricted  to  three  or  seven  days.  As  the  average  show- 
man is  a  keen  and  shrewd  business  man,  it  is  not  to  be 
supposed  for  a  moment  that  the  investment  of  such  a  sum 
every  week  is  otherwise  than  remunerative  from  his  point 
of  view. 

Will  the  cinematographic  newspaper  ever  supplant  its 
printed  rival?  By  no  means.  It  acts  rather  as  a n^ illus- 
trated supplement  to  printed  details;  it  renders  the  latter 
more  comprehensive  by  bringing  scenes  and  actors  vividly 
and  naturally  before  the  eye,  thereby  causing  a  more  living 
and  detailed  impression  than  can  be  obtained  through  the 
medium  of  words.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  beginning  to 
rival  the  illustrated  paper,  which  depends  upon  photo- 
graphic contents,  and  this  competition  will  be  felt  more 
keenly  as  time  goes  on. 

The  day  is  probably  still  far  distant  when  a  man,  instead 
of  giving  a  penny  for  a  printed  daily  newspaper  to  see 
what  has  happened  during  the  previous  twenty-four  hours, 
will  spend  the  same  sum  to  enter  a  picture  palace,  and 
devote  a  quarter  of  an   hour  to  seeing  in   full  animation 


286  MOVING   PICTURES  ch.  xxv 

what  paper  and  ink  merely  describe.  The  modern  business 
man  acknowledges  that  he  only  has  time  to  glance  through 
the  staring  headlines  of  his  morning  newspaper ;  and  surely 
comprehensive  titles  and  a  series  of  excellent  pictures 
would  perform  the  same  service  for  him,  and  more  besides. 
Producers  would  aid  the  development  by  giving  careful 
attention  to  titles  and  headlines. 

Thus  the  era  of  the  daily  cinematographic  newspaper  is 
not  so  remote  as  may  be  thought  at  first  sight.  The 
Gaumont  Graphic  is  quite  ready  to  appear  daily  if  the 
demand  should  arise.  The  organisation  is  perfect  so  far 
as  the  news-film  collecting,  printing,  developing,  and 
other  technical  details  are  concerned.  A  complete  paper 
could  be  turned  out  in  four  hours.  That  is  to  say,  films 
could  be  received  up  to  about  ten  o'clock  at  night,  and 
the  newspaper  could  be  ready  for  projection  by  two  o'clock 
in  the  morning.  The  early  special  trains  which  now  leave 
the  great  cities  at  express  speed  for  the  delivery  of  printed 
newspapers  to  remote  parts  of  the  country  may  yet  be 
called  upon  to  carry  small  boxes  of  daily  news-film  for 
similar  distribution.  The  manufacturing  cost  of  the  film  is 
being  constantly  reduced;  and  once  this  essential  is 
brought  to  a  very  low  figure,  enterprising  showmen  will 
not  hesitate  to  spend  a  few  shillings  per  day  to  reproduce 
in  animation  before  the  general  public  the  chief  episodes 
of  the  preceding  twenty-four  hours. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 

ANIMATION   IN  NATURAL  COLOURS 

The  perfection  attained  in  the  projection  of  animation 
upon  the  screen  in  black  and  white  naturally  stimulated 
efforts  towards  the  achievement  of  similar  results  in  natural 
colours.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  experiments  in  this  direction 
were  undertaken  long  before  monochrome  cinematography 
was  perfected.  W.  F.  Greene  indicated  the  development 
when  he  produced  his  instrument  in  1889;  while  as  far 
back  as  1897  Frederick  E.  Ives,  celebrated  for  his  efforts 
to  solve  the  problem  of  still-life  natural  colour  photo- 
graphy, outlined  a  means  of  applying  his  process  to 
cinematography  with  glass  plates,  the  celluloid  film  not 
having  appeared  at  that  date.  No  doubt  he  was  urged  to 
this  development  by  the  wonderful  results  achieved  in 
chronophotography  with  glass  plates  by  Dr.  Marey  in 
Paris. 

Since  that  year  experimenters  without  end  have  grappled 
with  the  problem ;  but  little  material  success  has  been 
achieved.  Indeed,  commercial  cinematography  in  the 
true  colours  of  Nature  appears  to  be  as  far  from  realisation 
as  a  simple  process  of  still-life  colour  photography. 
Nature  defies  the  photographic  investigator  to  capture  and 
reproduce  the  myriad  tints  and  hues  in  which  she  is  garbed. 

We  see  colour  pictures  upon  the  white  screen,  but  with 

one  or  two  exceptions  the  tints  are  the  result  of  the  artist's 

handiwork.     An  ordinary  black  and  white  film   is  taken, 

and  then  mlniirprl^  in  the  ^mt-  way  that  the  photographic 

artist  tints  his  portraits.     If  the  work  is  skilfully  performed 

the  results  are  distinctly  pleasing  and  effective.     After  one 

387 


288  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

has  been  watching  brilliant  black  and  white  pictures,  the 
introduction  of  a  coloured  film  comes  as  a  restful  interlude 
to  the  eyes.  The  coloured  cinematograph  film  was  intro- 
duced by  Robert  Paul,  shortly  after  he  established  his 
studio.  As  lantern  slides  could  be  coloured  by  hand  with 
brush  and  paints,  he  saw  no  reason  why  a  film  40  feet  in 
length  should  not  be  treated  in  the  same  way.  Accordingly 
he  enlisted  the  services  of  an  expert  artist  to  make  the 
experiment.  But  it  was  a  laborious  undertaking.  A 
picture  measuring  only  1  inch  wide  by  fths  of  an  inch  in 
depth  is  a  base  of  operations  quite  different  from  a  lantern 
slide  measuring  3!  inches  square.  A  magnifying  glass 
had  to  be  used,  and  a  considerable  length  of  time  was 
needed  to  treat  a  whole  film. 

One  of  the  earliest  colour  effects  to  which  the  public  were 
introduced  was  a  film  produced  by  James  Williamson,  in 
the  'nineties  of  the  last  century.  It  depicted  a  fire.  The 
conflagration  was  enacted  realistically,  an  abandoned 
house  being  used  for  the  purpose.  The  flames  and  the 
entire  scene  were  coloured,  giving  additional  sensational- 
ism to  the  picture.  At  that  time  the  coloured  film  was  very 
rarely  seen,  owing  to  the  expense  involved  in  its  produc- 
tion, and  when  Williamson  put  his  handiwork  on  the 
market  it  received  an  extraordinary  reception.  The  lurid 
tinting  of  the  flames  caught  the  public  fancy. 

When  the  film  measuring  400  feet  or  more  came  into 
vogue  it  was  recognised  that  hand  colouring  was  no  longer 
feasible.  The  method  was  too  slow  and  costly.  Accord- 
ingly a  stencil  process  was  evolved,  and  is  in  use  to-day, 
giving  many  of  the  beautiful  effects  seen  in  the  moving 
picture  theatres.  A  mechanical  method  of  tinting  the  films 
by  means  of  these  stencils  was  next  taken  in  hand,  and 
finally,  after  prolonged  experiment,  was  perfected.  In 
this  development  the  French  firm  of  Pathe"  Freres  played 
the  most  prominent  part,  and  to-day,  despite  the  strides 
made  in  natural  colour  cinematography,  their  productions 
still  rank  first  in  popular  estimation,  owing  to  the  delicacy 
of  the  colouring.  This  Parisian  firm  has  made  the  colour 
film  a  prominent   feature  of  its  business,  and  laid  down 


c*       e 


xxvi       ANIMATION  IN  NATURAL  COLOURS         289 

an    extensive   and  well-equipped  establishment  especially 
for  colouring  operations. 

Probably  everyone  knows  what  a  stencil  is.  It  is  a 
pattern  cut  out  of  a  solid  thin  flat  surface,  which  is  after- 
wards laid  upon  the  subject  to  be  treated,  and  paint  applied 
by  means  of  a  brush  or  some  other  medium.  The  colour- 
ing only  can  reach  the  surface  beneath  the  cut  spaces  in 
the  plate,  and  consequently  is  applied  just  where  it  is 
desired.  The  process  is  practised  freely  in  the  printing  of 
wall-papers,  and  in  applying  designs  to  other  surfaces,  as 
it  is  both  cheap,  rapid,  and  highly  effective. 

Cutting  the  stencils  for  a  moving  picture  film  is  a  long 
and  exacting  task.  Three  stencils  have  to  be  prepared  for 
each  subject.  In  the  first  the  spaces  corresponding  to  the 
red  tones  in  the  picture  have  to  be  cut ;  in  the  second,  those 
for  the  yellow ;  and  in  the  third  stencil,  those  for  the  blue. 
By  putting  one  over  the  other  the  various  mixtures  and 
tones  are  obtained.  The  process  may  be  likened  to  the 
preparation  of  the  three  process  blocks  for  heliochromic 
illustrations  in  letterpress  printing.  Since  each  picture 
measures  only  1  inch  wide  by  fths  of  an  inch  in  depth,  we 
may  gather  some  idea  of  the  labour  involved  for  the  treat- 
ment of,  say,  8,000  pictures  contained  in  a  film  500  feet 
long.  It  follows  that  unless  a  film  is  likely  to  have  a  large 
demand,  colouring  is  not  attempted.  In  one  case  which 
I  have  in  mind,  the  firm  will  not  attempt  colouring  unless 
they  are  certain  of  the  sale  of  200  copies  of  the  subject. 
The  colours — aniline  dyes — are  applied  successively  by 
means  of  rollers,  the  film  to  be  coloured  being  passed 
through  special  machines  contrived  for  the  purpose. 

In  view  of  the  expense  and  time  entailed,  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  many  inventors  have  devoted  their  energies 
to  devise  ways  and  means  of  taking  colour  pictures  direct 
from  Nature.  Greene  evolved  the  first  cinematographic 
process  for  taking  and  projecting  moving  pictures  in 
natural  colours,  and  his  patent  constitutes  the  base  upon 
which  all  other  experimenters  have  worked,  just  as  to-day 
in  America  the  kinetoscope  is  regarded  as  the  progenitor 
of  the  cinematograph.     Six  months  later  another  process 

U 


290  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

working  upon  the  same  broad  principle  was  patented  by 
Lee  and  Turner.  But  Greene's  process  was  premature; 
at  that  time  it  was  unworkable.  The  Lee  and  Turner 
system,  fundamentally  the  same,  suffered  from  a  similar 
defect,  as  I  shall  explain  a  little  later. 

Natural  light  is  the  result  of  waves  oscillating  at  a 
tremendous  speed  per  second,  just  as  other  waves,  heavier 
and  travelling  far  more  slowly  in  comparison  with  light 
waves,  produce  sound.  Our  familiar  conception  of 
natural  light,  or  daylight,  is  that  it  is  white;  but  we  also 
know  that  when  a  narrow  beam  is  permitted  to  fall  upon 
a  length  of  glass  of  triangular  section,  known  as  a  prism, 
the  light  which  on  the  outer  side  appears  white  is  found 
to  be  resolved  into  colours  on  the  opposite  side.  In 
passing  through  the  prism  the  beam  of  light  has  been 
deflected  from  a  straight  path,  and  the  result  is  that  the 
waves  of  varying  length,  of  which  white  light  is  composed, 
have  been  sorted  out.  The  shortest  rays  are  red,  while  the 
longest  rays  have  a  violet  tinge.  The  analysis  of  light, 
as  revealed  by  the  spectrum  in  a  dark  chamber,  is  per- 
formed for  us  by  Nature  in  the  rainbow. 

If  we  examine  that  phenomenon  we  shall  see  that  the 
innumerable  tints  constituting  it  fall  into  three  broad 
groups — red,  green,  and  violet.  These  therefore  are  re- 
garded as  the  primary  colours.  By  combining  any  two, 
or  all  three,  of  these,  the  multitudinous  hues  with  which 
we  are  familiar  may  be  produced.  The  average  person, 
when  he  hears  red,  green,  and  violet  described  as  the 
primary  colours,  is  inclined  to  remonstrate.  At  school  or 
when  using  his  box  of  paints,  he  was  taught  to  regard 
yellow,  red,  and  blue  as  the  primary  colours,  and  green, 
a  mixture  of  blue  and  yellow,  as  a  secondary  or  comple- 
mentary colour.  But  the  two  instances  deal  with  totally 
different  forms  of  light.  The  former  is  transmitted,  and 
the  second  is  reflected,  light.  This  confusion  of  thought 
led  to  the  undoing  of  many  early  experimenters  in  colour 
photography.  They  took  their  images  through  successive 
screens  of  red,  yellow,  and  blue,  and  when  projecting  used 
the  complementary  coloured  screens — orange,  green,   and 


xxvi      ANIMATION  IN  NATURAL  COLOURS        291 

violet.  The  results  were  startling.  It  was  not  until 
Greene  took  his  pictures  through  the  red,  green,  and  violet 
screens,  and  subsequently  projected  them  through  screens 
of  the  same  colours — that  is  to  say,  the  picture  taken 
through  the  green  glass  was  projected  through  the  green 
glass,  the  red  through  the  red,  and  the  violet  through  the 
violet — that  any  tangible  progress  was  made. 

When  the  celluloid  film  came  into  vogue  the  experi- 
menters lost  no  time  in  commercialising  a  system  of 
natural-colour  cinematography.  The  idea  was  to  take  a 
picture  through  each  successive  screen.  In  other  words, 
the  first  picture  was  taken  through  the  red  screen ;  the  film 
was  jerked  forward,  and  the  second  picture  was  taken 
through  the  green  screen  ;  lastly,  a  fresh  area  of  sensitised 
surface  was  brought  before  the  lens  and  third  or  violet 
screen.  Thus  three  consecutive  pictures,  taken  through 
three  different  screens,  were  secured.  The  screens  com- 
prised sectors  of  red,  green,  and  violet  respectively, 
each  colour  screen  being  succeeded  by  an  opaque 
sector.  Thus  the  shutter  was  divided  into  six  parts — three 
colour  screens  and  three  opaque  sectors  alternately.  After 
exposure  through  one  screen,  as  the  following  opaque 
sector  flitted  across  the  lens,  the  film  was  jerked  into  posi- 
tion to  bring  a  fresh  surface  of  sensitised  surface  before 
the  next  screen  in  the  revolving  shutter. 

When  the  red  screen  is  brought  into  position  before  the 
lens,  the  colours  in  the  object  are  filtered,  as  it  were,  only 
the  red  rays  being  permitted  to  pass  through  the  screen  to 
the  film.  The  picture  on  the  film,  therefore,  is  a  photo- 
graph of  the  red  tones  in  the  subject.  Similarly  the  green 
screen  absorbs  all  but  the  green  rays,  and  photographs 
a  record  of  the  green  tones  in  the  subject.  The  same  is 
true  of  the  violet  screen.  The  developed  film  possesses 
no  tinge  of  colour  in  itself.  It  is  merely  a  black-and-white 
image.  Close  examination  of  three  consecutive  pictures, 
however,  reveals  varying  densities  according  to  the  filter- 
ing action  of  the  respective  screens.  In  projecting,  the 
picture  taken  through  the  red  screen  is  thrown  through  a 
red  screen,  the  green  image  through  a  green  screen,  and 

u  2 


292  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

the  violet  though  a  violet  screen.  Thus  the  lantern  recon- 
structs upon  the  sheet  what  the  camera  dissects  when 
photographing  the  object.  Experimenters  anticipated 
that,  in  virtue  of  the  law  of  visual  persistence,  if  these 
pictures  were  projected  at  a  sufficient  speed  upon  the  sheet, 
the  three  images  taken  through  the  red,  green,  and  violet 
screens  would  be  superimposed  one  on  the  next,  thereby 
conveying  to  the  eye  a  faithful  colour  record  of  Nature. 

It  sounds  feasible  and  seems  attractively  simple  to  per- 
form ;  but  Nature  has  not  been  caught  yet. 

At  the  very  outset  the  investigators  were  baffled.  The 
sensitised  emulsion  on  the  film  was  too  slow  to  render  the 
application  possible.  Every  photographer  knows  that  the 
red  light  is  non-actinic — he  uses  it  for  the  illumination  of 
his  dark-room  while  developing  his  plates.  Obviously, 
therefore,  it  was  hopeless  to  endeavour  to  take  a  photo- 
graph through  the  red  screen  in  i/iooth  part  of  a  second. 
For  this  reason  Greene's  process  failed,  as  did  also  that  of 
Lee  and  Turner. 

Then  another  miscalculation  was  revealed.  With  black- 
and-white  pictures  a  speed  of  sixteen  pictures  is  the  mini- 
mum capable  of  conveying  the  impression  of  continuous 
motion  to  the  brain.  As  the  pictures  are  in  monochrome, 
the  perfection  of  the  illusion  is  facilitated.  But  when  it 
came  to  projecting  the  pictures  taken  in  three  different 
colours,  one  after  the  other,  this  law  was  seriously  upset. 
When  only  sixteen  pictures  per  second  are  shown,  the  eye 
and  brain  are  able  to  single  out  the  respective  colours. 
The  pictures  do  not  run  together  to  give  a  natural  colour- 
effect,  but  are  merely  successive  flashes  of  red,  green,  and 
violet  light.  Accordingly,  the  rate  of  projection  had  to 
be  increased  three  times  at  least — forty-eight  pictures  per 
second — and  the  strain  of  this  speed  upon  the  film  was  so 
great  that  often  it  succumbed. 

Consequently,  before  colour-cinematography  could  ad- 
vance beyond  the  year  1899 — when  the  first  patent  was 
filed  by  Greene — the  chemist  had  to  be  called  in  once  more 
to  accomplish  a  miracle  and  make  possible  the  dreams  of 
inventors.     The  sensitised  emulsion  had  to  be  speeded  up 


xxvi      ANIMATION  IN  NATURAL  COLOURS        293 

to  such  a  degree  that  it  was  sensitive  even  to  red  light. 
By  this  means  the  film  is  made  "panchromatic,"  as  it  is 
called ;  that  is  to  say,  it  becomes  so  sensitive  that  it  will 
permit  an  exposure  to  be  made  as  rapidly  through  the  red 
as  through  the  green  screen.  But  "panchromatism" 
brought  its  own  drawbacks.  The  film  could  no  longer  be 
handled  in  the  dark-room  illumined  with  a  ruby  lamp,  for 
fear  of  becoming  fogged. 

It  has  not  been  found  practicable  to  impart  pan- 
chromatism to  the  film  at  the  time  it  is  manufactured.  I 
do  not  mean  to  say  that  it  cannot  be  done  at  that  stage, 
but  the  demand  for  such  a  film  is  so  small  that  it  is  not 
worthy  of  present  consideration  on  the  part  of  the  manu- 
facturer. Until  colour-cinematography  becomes  gener- 
ally practised,  those  engaged  in  its  exploitation  will  be 
compelled  to  render  their  film  panchromatic  preparatory 
to  exposure. 

This  means  that  the  film  as  it  arrives  from  the  manu- 
facturer must  be  submitted  to  a  preliminary  operation  to 
augment  its  sensitiveness  to  light.  For  this  purpose  it  is 
passed  through  a  "colour-sensitising"  solution.  The  pre- 
cise constitution  of  this  sensitising  bath  is  jealously 
guarded,  though  the  materials  employed  in  the  process  are 
well  known,  and  several  formulae  which  will  render  a  film 
panchromatic  have  been  published.  Any  one  of  three 
chemicals  can  be  utilised  to  render  the  ordinary  film  so 
sensitive  to  light  that  the  ruby  lamp  will  fog  it.  These 
are  pinachrome,  pinacyanol,  and  ethyl-violet.  The  pro- 
portion of  these  fundamental  chemicals  varies,  the  majority 
of  investigators  having  evolved  a  particular  formula  which 
they  have  found  to  be  the  best  suited  to  their  own  require- 
ments. The  published  formulas,  however,  have  proved 
quite  reliable,  and  have  been  productive  of  some  excellent 
results;  and  they  provide  the  experimenter  with  a  basis 
upon  which  to  carry  out  his  work.  Recently  a  further 
development  has  been  recorded.  W.  F.  Greene,  the 
pioneer,  has  successfully  employed  a  new  colour  sensitiser, 
which  is  faster  than  either  of  the  three  above-mentioned 
mediums. 


294  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

Panchromatising  is  a  tedious  operation.  The  work  has 
to  be  carried  out  practically  in  total  darkness,  or  at  the 
utmost  in  the  faint  glimmer  of  a  blue-black  light.  Even 
this  slight  illumination  has  to  be  used  very  sparingly, 
being  switched  on  only  for  a  few  seconds  at  a  time.  After 
being  passed  through  the  colour  sensitiser  the  film  is  wound 
upon  a  large  drum  and  dried,  this  operation  being 
accelerated  by  rotating  the  drum  at  a  high  speed  in  a 
current  of  warm  air.  When  dry  the  film  is  wound  upon 
the  spool  ready  for  use.  As  may  be  supposed,  the  operation 
is  somewhat  slow,  about  three  hours  being  occupied  under 
the  most  favourable  conditions  in  the  process  of  sensitising 
and  drying. 

It  is  imperative  that  the  film,  after  being  sensitised, 
should  be  used  as  soon  as  possible.  It  deteriorates  rapidly  ; 
the  sensitiveness  of  the  emulsion  to  red  light  becomes  im- 
poverished through  keeping,  the  life  of  stock  so  treated 
being,  as  a  rule,  one  of  only  a  few  weeks. 

Another  objection  to  colour  cinematography  is  the 
expense.  When  the  three  primary  colours — red,  green, 
and  violet — are  used,  demanding  a  photographing  and 
projecting  speed  of  forty-eight  pictures  per  second — sixteen 
per  second  through  each  screen — as  compared  with  sixteen 
pictures  per  second  with  black  and  white  work,  three  times 
the  quantity  of  film  has  to  be  used.  Accordingly,  the 
expense  of  the  film  alone  is  three  times  as  heavy.  The 
further  necessity  for  panchromatising  the  film  before  use 
increases  the  cost  of  the  material  still  more.  By  the  time 
the  "stock"  has  been  treated  with  the  colour  sensitiser 
its  cost  is  increased  from  ljd.,  or  3  cents,  to  about  3^d., 
or  7  cents,  per  foot. 

When  tricolour  cinematography  is  attempted,  three  feet 
of  film  are  required  to  record  the  movements  of  the  subject 
during  the  space  of  one  second,  as  against  one  foot  for 
black  and  white  work.  With  a  view  to  reducing  this  heavy 
cost,  inventors  concentrated  their  attention  on  the  pos- 
sibility of  securing  approximately  true  natural  colours  by 
the  aid  of  two  screens  only — the  green  and  the  red.     In 


xxvi      ANIMATION  IN  NATURAL  COLOURS        295 

this  way  a  third  less  film  was  required  and  the  cost  was 
reduced  by  an  equal  proportion. 

This  development  was  led  by  W.  F.  Greene.  Realising 
the  disadvantages  of  the  three  screens,  he  abandoned  that 
system — although  it  has  since  been  exploited — and  in  1905 
perfected  the  first  practical  method  of  natural-colour 
cinematography  through  two  screens — red  and  green.  A 
demonstration  was  given  in  the  Library  of  the  Royal  In- 
stitution on  January  26th,  1906.  This  was  not  Greene's  first 
demonstration  in  two-colour  work,  as  in  1900  he  devised 
a  machine  for  achieving  the  same  object,  which  was  ex- 
hibited before  the  Royal  Photographic  Society  in  that  year. 

Another  diligent  investigator  in  this  field  was  Mr.  Albert 
Smith,  who  was  striving  towards  colour  cinematography 
at  the  same  time  as  Greene,  but  independently  of  him. 
The  art  fascinated  him  in  the  early  days;  and  although 
he  prosecuted  his  experiments  first  in  black  and  white,  the 
result  of  Ives's  efforts  in  still-life  colour  photography 
prompted  him  to  wrestle  with  the  problem  of  producing 
natural  colours  in  moving  pictures.  The  elimination  of  the 
third  or  blue  screen  was  his  special  study,  and  years  were 
expended  in  researches  to  this  end,  involving  countless 
experiments  with  the  red  and  green  screens,  varying  in 
density  and  intensity  from  the  colour  point  of  view,  and 
in  relation  to  one  another.  For  instance,  one  screen,  say,  of 
emerald-green  and  the  other  of  orange-red  would  first  be 
used.  This  proving  unsatisfactory,  the  proportion  of  the 
red  in  the  one  screen  was  increased,  the  green  remaining 
untouched.  Then  the  green  would  be  varied,  and  then  the 
red  again,  the  process  being  continued  until  a  satisfactory 
result  was  obtained.  The  search  was  rendered  all  the  more 
exasperating  when  the  screens  which  produced  satisfaction 
on  one  day  with  a  subject,  failed  altogether  with  another 
subject  the  next  day,  owing  to  variation  in  the  light.  At 
last,  in  1906,  Mr.  Smith's  patent,  known  as  "Kinema- 
color,"  made  its  appearance  some  eighteen  months  behind 
that  of  Greene;  though  it  was  not  perfected  sufficiently 
to  be  introduced  to  the  public  until  1908. 


296  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

Undoubtedly  "Kinemacolor "  is  at  present  the  best- 
known  commercial  natural  colour  system.  The  appear- 
ance of  this  process  has  stimulated  the  movement  in 
colour  cinematography  to  a  pronounced  degree,  and  its 
improved  appearance  in  191 1  created  a  sensation.  Some 
of  the  effects  produced  have  been  very  beautiful,  and 
although  they  are  far  from  perfect,  as  those  identified  with 
the  process  will  readily  admit,  yet  it  constitutes  an  excellent 
stepping-stone  for  further  improvement. 

The  statement  that  the  blue  screen  has  been  eliminated 
will  doubtless  provoke  discussion  as  to  how  the  hues  of  a 
pronounced  blue  or  purple  effect  so  common  in  nature 
can  be  obtained.  If  one  picture  is  photographed  through 
the  red  screen  and  the  second  through  the  green  screen, 
this  alternation  of  exposure  being  continued  throughout  the 
film,  it  seems  certain  that  the  result  will  be  pictures  wherein 
only  green  and  red  tones  exist,  since  no  combination  of 
these  colours  will  give  purple.  This,  in  fact,  is  the  case, 
and  it  constitutes  the  foremost  imperfection  in  "  Kinema- 
color " ;  the  pictures  do  have  a  prevailing  green  or  red 
tone.  But  these  tints  become  modified  slightly.  The 
essential  blue  tone  is  partially  supplied  in  two  ways.  In 
the  first  place  there  is  a  certain  proportion  of  blue  asso- 
ciated with  the  green  screen ;  secondly,  when  the  electric 
arc  light  is  used  there  is  a  pronounced  blue  tone  in  the 
light.  The  combination  of  these  factors,  to  a  certain  but 
very  small  degree,  compensates  for  the  absence  of  the  blue 
screen. 

On  the  other  hand,  resort  to  the  two  screens  serves  to 
emphasise  the  direct  colours.  The  red  and  green  tones 
do  stand  out  with  startling  purity — "unnaturally  vivid" 
is  a  criticism  that  I  have  often  heard — but  the  intermediate 
tones,  particularly  those  of  the  browns,  are  strikingly  soft. 
Some  of  the  pictures  are  assailed  as  being  unnatural  in 
tone;  and  to  a  certain  extent  the  criticism  is  a  just  one. 
In  some  instances,  however,  it  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
spectator  has  never  actually  concentrated  his  attention  upon 
colour  effects  in  Nature.  His  eye  has  never  given  him  a 
faithful  report  of  their  quality. 


xxvi      ANIMATION  IN  NATURAL  COLOURS        297 

That  "Kinemacolor "  has  severe  limitations  cannot  be 
denied,  especially  when  it  comes  to  dealing  with  Nature 
direct.  Fidelity  to  the  myriad  hues  of  Nature,  ranging 
from  one  extreme  end  of  the  spectrum  to  the  other,  cannot 
possibly  be  obtained  by  recourse  to  two  screens. 

One  searches  in  vain  for  the  true  blue  and  the  rich,  deep 
purple,  while  the  pure  yellow  also  is  absent,  being  repre- 
sented by  varying  tones  of  orange.  So  far  as  the  blues 
and  purples  are  concerned,  they  never  can  be  obtained  by 
resort  to  the  two  screens — red  and  green  respectively — 
because  what  is  known  as  the  lower  end  of  the  spectrum 
is  lost  entirely  by  "Kinemacolor."  The  hues  stop  short 
at  the  boundary  where  green  meets  blue. 

The  public  has  sometimes  drawn  attention  to  another 
defect  in  colour  cinematography.  It  appears  to  photograph 
the  subject  in  a  brilliant  sunlight,  regardless  of  the  fact 
that  sunlight  kills  colours.  Every  amateur  photographer 
knows  that  if  he  exposes  his  plate  upon  a  brilliantly 
lighted  subject  the  tones  are  hard,  everything  being  prac- 
tically resolved  into  an  intense  white  and  black,  while  the 
leaves  of  trees  appear  to  be  covered  with  snow.  When 
such  a  disadvantage  afflicts  the  black  and  white  worker, 
what  can  be  said  of  a  colour  subject  taken  under  the  same 
conditions?  The  brilliantly  lighted  points  are  lacking  in 
tone,  and  some  very  bizarre  effects  are  produced  in  con- 
sequence. When  an  essentially  scenic  subject  is  thrown 
upon  the  screen  these  defects  are  very  manifest,  but  when 
it  is  applied  to  such  a  subject  as  the  Coronation  of  the  King 
the  flaws  are  overlooked,  because  public  interest  is  con- 
centrated upon  the  principal  actors. 

It  cannot  be  denied  that  from  the  popular  point  of  view 
the  Kinemacolor  records  of  the  Coronation,  the  Investi- 
ture of  the  Prince  of  Wales,  and  other  Royal  subjects  of 
the  same  time  left  little  to  be  desired.  They  brought  the 
scene  before  millions  with  a  wonderful  realism  and  gor- 
geous blaze  of  colour  such  as  never  before  in  the  history 
of  moving  pictures  had  been  witnessed  upon  the  screen. 
The  excellence  of  these  portrayals  established  "Kinema- 
color" firmly  in  the  mind  of  the  public. 


298  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

Another  disconcerting  feature  which  has  aroused  con- 
siderable comment  in  the  public  mind  is  the  apparent 
duplication  of  the  outlines  of  figures  near  the  camera. 
The  most  uninitiated  observer  cannot  fail  to  see  the  out- 
lines in  green  and  red,  as  if  the  superimposition  were  out 
of  register.  "Fringing,"  as  this  defect  is  called,  is  difficult 
to  eliminate  in  many  instances,  and  although  often  it  is 
only  momentary,  it  is  decidedly  distressing.  It  is  due  to 
diffraction,  the  glass  screen  as  the  light  passes  through 
acting  somewhat  as  a  prism,  and  splitting  up  the  light 
into  its  component  parts  or  groups  of  wave-lengths. 

"Kinemacolor "  has  vast  possibilities  in  the  presenta- 
tion of  picture-plays ;  indeed,  this  may  be  said  to  be  its 
true  province.  Here  one  can  prepare  the  scenery  and 
costumes  to  come  within  the  limitations  of  the  two  screens 
adopted;  the  drawbacks  can  be  eliminated  by  proper 
staging,  and  all  those  colours  omitted  which  cannot  be 
faithfully  reproduced.  Even  if  the  latter  expedient  is  not 
practised,  the  colour-distortion  is  not  seen  upon  the  screen. 
The  audience  cannot  see  that  a  rich  purple  cloak  has 
turned  to  a  whitish-green,  or  a  brilliant  yellow  become 
reddish-orange. 

In  justice,  however,  it  must  be  said  that  Kinemacolor 
is  only  in  its  infancy ;  it  occupies  the  same  position  to-day 
that  black-and-white  cinematography  did  in  the  early 
'nineties.  The  combined  efforts  of  several  independent 
investigators  will  eliminate  the  defects  one  by  one  and 
effect  steady  improvements.  Black-and-white  cinemato- 
graphy has  passed  beyond  the  formative  period  and 
reached  an  advanced  stage  of  development;  natural-colour 
cinematography  must  go  through  the  self-same  ordeal. 
Operators  have  not  become  accustomed  to  the  new  order  of 
things,  and  have  not  realised  the  many  new  factors  that 
have  to  be  taken  into  consideration.  The  sooner  they  do 
so,  the  more  profitable  will  the  art  become. 

A  new  rival,  "Biocolor,"  has  recently  made  its  appear- 
ance. This  process  is  based  upon  the  Greene  patents,  and 
the  results  achieved  so  far,  in  combination  with  this 
indefatigable  experimenter's  latest  discoveries,  represent  a 


xxvi      ANIMATION  IN  NATURAL  COLOURS         299 

marked  advance  in  the  art.  Not  only  are  the  tones  purer 
to  Nature,  but  "fringing"  and  other  defects  have  been 
eliminated,  while  the  process  is  much  simpler  and  cheaper. 

Considerable  attention  has  been  centred  upon  a  new 
natural-colour  cinematographic  process  which  has  recently 
made  its  appearance.  The  three  primary  colours  are  used, 
and  are  projected  upon  the  screen  simultaneously  to  pre- 
sent merely  one  image  before  the  public,  as  in  the  Ives 
system  of  lantern-slide  colour-projection.  The  pictures 
are  projected  at  the  rate  of  sixteen  per  second  in  groups 
of  three,  and  the  lighting  arrangement  is  carried  out  upon 
different  lines.  Instead  of  a  revolving  shutter  eclipsing 
the  red  image  to  permit  the  green  picture  to  be  brought 
into  place,  the  light  is  extinguished,  projection  being  car- 
ried out  upon  a  flash  system,  whereby  a  powerful  beam  of 
light  is  thrown  momentarily  through  the  three  images  and 
screens,  the  pictures  being  changed  in  the  period  of  dark- 
ness. The  flashing  must  be  carried  out  with  uniformity, 
which  is  assured  by  electric-mechanical  means,  indepen- 
dently of  the  operator.  The  results,  it  is  stated,  show  the 
most  distinct  advance  so  far  made  in  natural-colour  cine- 
matography. 

Although  colour-cinematography  has  made  remarkable 
strides,  the  monochrome  picture  has  become  established 
more  firmly  than  ever.  The  appearance  of  the  new  rival 
has  stimulated  perfection  in  the  technical  excellence  of  the 
latter  process.  The  monochrome  possesses  one  overwhelm- 
ing advantage  over  its  competitor — it  is  far  cheaper.  A 
subject  which  in  black  and  white  requires,  say,  500  feet 
of  film,  demands,  as  we  have  seen,  1,000  feet,  or  twice  the 
quantity  of  material,  for  the  two-colour  record  of  the  same 
subject.  At  present  also  the  monochrome  film  possesses 
finer  and  more  brilliant  detail,  is  clearer,  and,  from  the 
photographic  standpoint,  leaves  little  to  be  desired. 

It  is  becoming  quite  a  common  practice  to  relieve  the 
monotonous  black-and-white  by  the  introduction  of  colour- 
ing effects.  For  instance,  the  impression  of  a  bright  moon- 
light night  is  conveyed  by  giving  the  pictures  a  prevailing 
blue  tone;  for  other  scenes  brown  or  red  tones  are  given. 


300  MOVING   PICTURES  ch.  xxvi 

These  effects  are  secured  by  steeping  the  film  in  a  chemical 
solution  in  precisely  the  same  way  as  platinotype  and 
bromide  papers  are  tinted  after  development. 

"Toning,"  as  it  is  called,  is  coming  into  extensive  use, 
especially  in  connection  with  the  most  artistic  films.  The 
treatment  imparts  a  solidity  to  the  figures  in  the  picture, 
and  gives  a  pleasing  softness,  so  that  the  pictures  upon 
the  screen  possess  a  quasi-stereoscopic  effect  highly  pleasing 
to  the  eye.  The  beauty  of  this  treatment  is  revealed  very 
significantly  in  the  films  of  Italian  manufacture,  and 
especially  in  the  "art  "  productions  of  the  Cines  Company, 
of  Rome.  There  is  no  limitation  to  subsequent  improving 
processes  such  as  these,  and  their  effect  is  to  implant  the 
monochrome  pictures  more  and  more  firmly  in  public  esti- 
mation. Consequently,  the  black-and-white  picture  is  far 
from  being  eclipsed  by  its  new  rival;  in  fact,  such  a  con- 
tingency is  more  remote  to-day  than  it  was  ten  years  ago. 


CHAPTER    XXVII 

MOVING    PICTURES    IN     THE    HOME 

Will  the  cinematograph  ever  enter  home  life  ?  Will 
the  world  and  his  wife  ever  become  wedded  to  a  camera 
with  which  they  can  secure  life  in  motion  by  some  simple 
and  easy  method,  just  as  now  they  can  obtain  still-life 
pictures  by  the  aid  of  the  hand-camera  ?  Will  the  cinemato- 
graph become  as  popular  as  the  ubiquitous  Kodak  ? 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  widespread  favour  extended 
to  cinematography  has  brought  about  a  popular  desire  to 
follow  the  art  in  an  amateur  manner,  as  is  possible  in 
ordinary  photography.  Hitherto  certain  obstacles  have 
stood  in  the  way  of  the  amateur  enthusiast;  but  these  diffi- 
culties have  been  broken  down  in  an  ingenious  manner. 
The  desire  to  practise  the  new  cult  has  been  increased  by 
the  number  of  firms  engaged  in  the  making  of  topical 
pictures  and  by  the  increasing  demand  for  such  subjects. 
Occasionally  pictures  command  a  high  value,  fluctuating  in 
proportion  to  public  interest.  For  instance,  the  dramatic 
manner  of  Bleriot's  flight  across  the  Channel  caught  the 
professional  cinematographers  by  surprise.  Elaborate 
arrangements  had  been  made  to  secure  pictorial  records  of 
this  journey,  but  only  one  man,  a  wide-awake  amateur, 
obtained  a  film  of  the  embarkation.  Although  his  film  was 
deficient  in  technique  and  photographic  quality,  it  com- 
manded a  high  price;  and  the  enterprising  photographer 
never  had  occasion  to  regret  his  enterprise,  for  his  initial 
expense  was  recouped  several  times  over. 

The  cost  of  the  camera  and  the  expense  of  the  film  are 
the  chief  drawbacks   to    the    popularisation    of  cinemato- 


302  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

graphy;  the  bulkiness  of  the  apparatus  has  also  militated 
against  its  adoption  by  the  amateur.  Recently,  however, 
these  admitted  drawbacks  have  been  overcome,  and  by 
methods  which  claim  the  distinct  merit  of  ingenuity  and 
resource. 

About  1886  a  novel  device  known  as  the  "Kineograph  " 
appeared.  It  was  an  anticipation  of  the  "Mutoscope," 
which  made  such  a  bold  bid  for  public  appreciation  in  the 
early  'nineties  and,  like  the  Kineograph  itself,  failed  to 
make  its  mark.  A  number  of  instantaneous  photographs 
were  printed  and  mounted  upon  separate  leaves.  The  pic- 
tures were  placed  in  consecutive  order  and  bound  at  one 
side  to  form  a  kind  of  book.  When  the  leaves  were  turned 
over  rapidly,  giving  fleeting  though  distinct  glimpses  of 
the  successive  pictures,  the  idea  was  conveyed  that  motion 
was  being  represented. 

Recently  this  idea  has  been  revived  in  the  "  Kinora " 
motion  photography  system.  This  likewise  made  its  first 
appearance  some  years  ago,  but  failed  of  success,  although 
it  was  distinctly  ingenious.  It  offered  to  the  home  in  pic- 
tures just  what  the  phonograph  provides  in  regard  to 
sound — the  capture  of  a  particular  incident  to  be  repro- 
duced at  leisure.  In  a  highly  improved  form  the  same 
device  has  recently  reappeared,  and  its  reception  augurs 
well  for  its  future. 

The  amateur  is  provided  with  facilities  for  taking  his 
own  photographs,  a  special  camera  having  been  evolved 
for  the  purpose  of  simple  design  and  operation.  In  general 
appearance  it  resembles  the  ordinary  hand-camera,  measur- 
ing 9J  inches  in  length  by  6|  inches  wide  by  7|  inches 
deep.  When  loaded  it  does  not  weigh  more  than  7 J 
pounds.  Externally  it  possesses  few  fittings.  There  is  the 
lens,  which  can  be  focussed  by  moving  the  lens  tube  to 
and  fro  in  an  outer  sleeve,  as  in  a  telescope;  the  view- 
finder,  placed  on  the  top,  and  the  actuating  handle  at 
the  right-hand  side.  At  the  rear  is  the  dial,  whereby  is 
indicated  the  length  of  film  exposed,  a  focussing  tube 
and  the  device  whereby  focussing  is  carried  out. 

The    mechanism  of   the   camera   is   very  simple.      The 


The  Kinora  camera. 


The  mechanism  ol   the   Kinora  camera  showing  papei   negative  film  in  position. 
MOVING    PICTURES   AT    HOME. 


The  reel  of  positive  prints.      The  pictures  are  mounted  separately  upon  leaves  fixed  to  a  core. 


MOVING    PICTURES   AT    in  'Ml.. 


Thi    Kinora    reproduction  instrument.       It  resembles  a  stereoscope,  and   the  pictures  are 
exposed  singly  by   rotating  the  handle. 


xxvii       MOVING  PICTURES  IN  THE  HOME  303 

sensitised  ribbon  is  placed  in  a  circular  spool  box  and  then 
is  threaded  through  the  film-gate  and  the  intermittent  gear, 
to  be  taken  finally  in  a  second  circular  spool-box.  The 
intermittent  gear  differs  entirely  from  that  in  the  ordinary 
camera,  which  works  upon  a  claw  or  finger  system  with 
the  film  running  over  sprockets.  In  the  Kinora  camera 
below  the  gate  there  are  two  eccentric  rollers,  mounted 
side  by  side,  acting  in  the  same  way  as  the  rollers  of  the 
domestic  mangle.  These  rollers  are  split  at  one  point 
through  their  entire  length,  and  when  these  two  edges, 
rotating  synchronously  but  in  opposite  directions,  come 
together  and  in  contact  with  the  film,  which  is  fed  between 
them,  they  grip  and  pull  it  down  the  depth  of  one  picture. 
It  may  be  pointed  out  that  a  similar  movement  was  adopted 
in  the  very  earliest  cinematograph  cameras  built  by  Greene 
and  other  experimenters,  in  order  to  secure  the  requisite 
intermittent  motion.  Their  imperfection  was  the  uncertain 
motion  of  the  rollers;  but  in  the  Kinora  camera  this  defect 
has  been  completely  overcome. 

The  apparatus  can  be  used  either  with  a  paper  negative 
or  the  celluloid  film.  The  former  is  very  satisfactory  and 
inexpensive,  and  it  may  be  stated  that  this  is  the  first 
occasion  in  which  the  paper  negative  has  been  applied  suc- 
cessfully to  motion-photography.  The  camera  is  adapted 
to  carry  forty  feet  of  ribbon,  which  is  sufficient  for  640 
consecutive  pictures,  the  latter  being  precisely  of  the  same 
dimensions  as  those  obtained  upon  the  ordinary  celluloid 
cinematograph  film — one  inch  in  width  by  three-quarters 
of  an  inch  deep.  Paper  is  suited  to  ordinary  work,  although 
the  grain  destroys  sharpness  to  a  slight  extent;  however, 
as  such  sensitised  ribbon  costs  only  is.  6d.  (36  cents)  per 
length  of  forty  feet,  the  drawback  is  slight.  If  desired, 
celluloid  film  can  be  used,  in  which  case  the  ribbon  is  one 
inch  in  width — three-eighths  of  an  inch  narrower  than  the 
standard  cinematographic  film,  although  there  is  no  varia- 
tion in  the  size  of  the  image,  since  the  necessity  of  per- 
forating the  edges  has  been  obviated.  Celluloid  film  printed 
in  this  manner  cannot  be  used  for  the  purposes  of  projec- 
tion upon  a  screen.    Moreover,  the  celluloid  film  is  expen- 


304  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

sive;  the  paper  sensitised  ribbon  is  more  suitable  for  home- 
work. 

The  paper  negative  is  developed  in  the  ordinary  manner, 
but  as  the  operation  is  somewhat  delicate,  the  exposed 
ribbon  should  be  sent  to  the  manufacturers,  who  also  pre- 
pare the  positive  for  a  modest  outlay.  In  any  case,  the 
positive  must  be  prepared  by  the  manufacturers,  as  it  is 
a  somewhat  intricate  process,  demanding  resort  to  special 
machinery;  the  pictures  have  to  be  printed  one  by  one,  on 
successive  leaves  in  rotation,  and  attached  by  one  end  to 
a  bobbin  so  as  to  present  a  circular  reel  for  use  in  the 
Kinora  projecting  apparatus,  as  shown  in  the  illustration. 
The  pictures  are  printed  upon  bromide  paper  in  such  a  way 
that  the  image  stands  upon  a  black  background.  The 
latter  is  obtained  by  exposing  the  sensitised  paper  sur- 
rounding the  negative  image  to  the  light  at  the  same  time 
that  the  negative  is  printed;  and  as  it  becomes  thoroughly 
exposed,  development  brings  it  out  perfectly  black.  It 
looks  as  though  the  positive  were  printed  upon  paper 
and  afterwards  cut  out  and  mounted  upon  a  black  back- 
ground. 

The  positive  has  next  to  be  submitted  to  a  treatment 
whereby  the  back  of  the  paper  is  coated  with  a  dead  black. 
The  strip  of  paper  carrying  the  images  is  then  cut  to  the 
requisite  size  by  means  of  special  machinery,  so  that  each 
picture  forms  a  leaf  about  3J  inches  long  by  1  inch  deep. 
The  blank  end  of  each  leaf  is  attached  to  a  central  core 
or  reel,  some  640  leaves  being  mounted  edge-wise  in  this 
manner,  and  the  positive  is  then  ready  for  projection. 

The  apparatus  by  means  of  which  the  motion  is  repro- 
duced varies  slightly  in  the  different  types.  In  its  simplest 
form  it  recalls  the  stereoscope  in  design,  only  instead  of 
two  lenses  it  has  one  large  rectangular  magnifying-glass 
The  reel  is  mounted  upon  the  opposite  end  of  the  instru- 
ment in  a  horizontal  manner  so  that  the  pictures  stand 
vertically  and  parallel  to  the  lens.  There  is  a  small  handle 
at  one  side  whereby  the  reel  of  pictures  is  rotated  through 
simple  gearing,  while  a  metal  finger  rests  lightly  upon 
the  extreme  outer  edge  of  the  leaves  in  such  a  way  as  to 


xxvii       MOVING  PICTURES  IN  THE  HOME  305 

permit  only  one  picture  to  turn  over  at  a  time.  When  this 
handle  is  turned  and  one  is  looking  through  the  magnify- 
ing-glass,  the  leaves  fly  over  in  rapid  sequence,  producing 
a  vivid  illusion  of  animation.  In  the  second  type  of 
machine  the  reel  is  mounted  in  a  cabinet,  which  is  fitted 
with  two  or  more  lenses,  so  that  two  or  more  people  can 
follow  the  movement  of  the  pictures  simultaneously.  The 
actuating  mechanism  is  driven  by  clockwork,  as  in  a 
gramophone. 

Endless  pleasure  can  be  obtained  with  this  instrument  in 
the  home.  Pretty  little  incidents  of  domestic  life,  such  as 
children  playing,  animals  gambolling,  and  so  forth,  can 
be  photographed  and  reproduced  upon  the  reel  !  If  one 
is  more  ambitious  one  can  cinematograph  great  events, 
such  as  a  horse  race,  a  boxing  contest,  an  express  train  at 
full  speed — in  short,  anything  in  motion.  It  is  only 
necessary  to  set  the  camera  upon  some  rigid  foundation, 
if  a  tripod  is  not  carried,  to  secure  steadiness  during 
exposure. 

There  is  one  great  benefit  accruing  from  the  use  of  this 
apparatus.  Unless  wanton  carelessness  is  displayed,  one 
need  not  worry  about  under-  or  over-exposure.  The  paper 
negatives  are  coated  with  an  exceedingly  rapid  emulsion 
of  considerable  orthochromatic  quality,  so  that  true  colour- 
values  are  ensured. 

A  very  noticeable  feature  is  the  ingenious  focussing 
device.  Instead  of  opening  the  camera  and  removing  the 
film  frorn  the  gate,  as  in  the  ordinary  cinematograph 
camera,  one  has  merely  to  slide  a  stop  projecting  from 
the  back  of  the  camera  to  the  length  of  its  slot.  By  so 
doing  the  whole  of  the  internal  mechanism  is  moved  bodily 
to  one  side  to  bring  a  small  square  of  ground  glass  attached 
to  the  gate  into  position  before  the  lens-tube,  when  focus- 
sing can  be  carried  out  very  easily  and  readily. 

As  already  pointed  out,  if  celluloid  films  are  employed 
with  this  camera,  they  cannot  be  used  for  projection  pur- 
poses, because  positives  cannot  be  printed  from  them  upon 
the  standard  perforated  positive  film.  Consequently,  the 
amateur  who  wishes  to  take  motion  pictures  for  projection 

x 


306  MOVING  PICTURES  chap. 

on  the  screen  will  find  the  Kinora  system  valueless.  It 
was  designed  especially  for  the  production  of  positive 
bromide  prints  mounted  upon  a  reel  to  be  used  with  the 
special  viewing  machine. 

The  true  future  for  this  ingenious  development  of  the 
art  undoubtedly  lies  in  the  possibility  of  purchasing  at  a 
reasonable  price  reels  of  "star"  events  and  subjects  of 
general  interest  or  picture  plays,  in  the  same  way  that 
one  can  purchase  talking-machine  records.  In  this  way 
motion-photography  can  indeed  be  brought  to  the  fireside. 

How  can  the  art  of  cinematography  be  brought  within 
the  reach  of  the  amateur  ?  This  is  the  absorbing  question 
of  the  moment.  Moving  pictures  having  become  so 
popular,  the  traveller  wishes  to  secure  animated  records  of 
the  scenes  which  he  has  witnessed  in  foreign  climes,  to 
reveal  them  to  his  friends,  exactly  as  he  saw  them,  within 
the  home  circle.  Unfortunately,  such  an  achievement  is 
impossible  under  existing  conditions.  The  apparatus, 
both  recording  and  projecting,  is  expensive;  the  film  is 
costly ;  while  the  problem  incidental  to  the  illuminant  is 
not  easily  solved  in  trie  average  home. 

Obviously,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  the  film  is  so  expen- 
sive, some  other  system  of  recording  and  projecting 
animation  must  be  employed.  At  the  same  time,  any 
invention  of  this  character  aspiring  for  commercial  success 
must  be  simple,  inexpensive,  immune  from  danger,  and 
compact.  At  first  sight  it  seems  an  almost  impossible 
quest  to  secure  all  these  essentials  in  a  single  stroke.  But 
it  has  been  accomplished,  and  what  is  more,  with  absolute 
perfection.  To-day  the  amateur  can  take  moving  pictures 
and  project  them  upon  a  screen  at  will,  for  the  edification 
of  his  friends,  more  easily  and  cheaply  than  he  can 
"  Kodak  "  and  project  snapshots  by  lantern-slides.  More- 
over, the  results  thus  obtained  and  shown  are  far  superior 
to  those  obtainable  with  the  methods  and  apparatus  now 
in  vogue. 

This  revolutionary  achievement  has  been  attained 
through  the  efforts  of  an  indefatigable  Italian  worker, 
M.  Gianni  Bettini.     This  persevering  inventor  recognised 


xxvii       MOVING  PICTURES  IN  THE  HOME  307 

that  a  totally  different  system  would  have  to  be  evolved  to 
meet  the  requirements  of  the  millions.  The  celluloid  film 
was  quite  impracticable,  so  he  reverted  to  the  early  days 
when  investigators  strove,  and  in  vain,  to  utilise  glass  for 
their  purposes. 

The  early  experimenters,  as  I  have  described  already, 
followed  the  principle  of  one  plate  one  picture.  The  opera- 
tion of  changing  the  standard-size  plate  in  its  holder,  no 
matter  how  deftly  accomplished,  occupied  an  appreciable 
interval  of  time,  which  disturbed  the  rhythmic  character 
of  the  action  photographed.  Monsieur  Bettini  recognised 
this  insurmountable  drawback,  so  set  to  work  to  devise  a 
means  of  taking  several  successive  images  upon  a  single 
plate,  and  his  success  in  this  direction  constitutes  one  of 
the  vital  features  of  his  invention. 

The  pictures  are  taken  in  a  series  of  rows — sixteen  to 
a  row — and  at  the  rate  of  sixteen  per  second.  But  there 
is  a  radical  departure  from  prevalent  practice.  With  the 
ordinary  cinematograph  apparatus  the  lens  is  fixed  and  the 
film  is  moved  intermittently.  In  the  Bettini  system  the 
sensitised  surface  is  held  rigidly,  and  it  is  the  lens  which 
moves.  Now,  this  raises  an  important  and  novel  point.  As 
the  lens  is  moved  continually  to  and  fro  a  matter  of  4§ 
inches — no  two  successive  pictures  in  a  row,  in  fact,  are 
taken  at  the  same  focus — one  would  naturally  expect  that 
the  pictures  would  vary  in  sharpness.  But  such  is  not  the 
case  :  the  picture  at  the  left-hand  extremity  of  the  row  is 
as  sharp  as  that  at  the  opposite  end. 

The  whole  principle  of  the  Bettini  cinema-d-plaque,  as 
it  is  called,  is  entirely  new.  The  camera  itself,  a  small 
contrivance,  wrought  in  aluminium,  measuring  some 
8  inches  in  length  by  4  inches  wide  and  3^  inches  high, 
is  no  larger  or  heavier  than  a  Kodak  snapshot  camera. 
This  box  contains  the  actuating  mechanism,  which  com- 
prises a  longitudinal  shaft,  carrying  a  peculiar  thread,  on 
which  is  mounted,  and  along  which  moves,  the  objective, 
motion  being  imparted  thereto  by  the  revolution  of  the 
handle  in  the  ordinary  way.     The  sensitised  plate,  instead 

x  2 


3o8  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

of  being  slipped  in  position  at  the  rear  of  the  box  and 
facing  the  lens,  is  inserted  at  one  side  and  at  right-angles 
to  the  front  aperture.  The  objective  is  a  combined  lens 
and  a  prism  mounted  upon  the  travelling  part.  The  light, 
passing  through  the  front  aperture,  enters  the  prism  and 
thus  is  bent  at  right-angles  through  the  objective  on  to 
the  plate. 

The  plate  itself  measures  130  by  215  millimetres  (5J  by 
8|  inches),  and  is  mounted  in  a  toothed  rod  on  one  side. 
This  rack  is  vertical  and  is  moved  downwards,  6  milli- 
metres (^  inch)  at  a  time,  by  the  mechanism  on  which 
the  objective  is  mounted,  when  the  latter  has  completed 
its  length  of  travel.  The  plate  is  held  in  its  holder  upon 
the  left-hand  side,  but  the  top  and  bottom  edges  of  the 
respective  first  and  last  rows  of  pictures  are  flush  with  the 
edge  of  the  plate.  The  latter  is  slipped  into  the  camera  and 
travels  downwards  intermittently.  Instead  of  a  slide  being 
used  there  are  light-tight  bags,  both  top  and  bottom,  form- 
ing the  magazines.  Directly  the  plate  has  passed  through 
the  camera  it  falls  into  the  lower  bag,  while  simultaneously 
a  second  plate  follows  in  its  train  through  the  camera  from 
the  upper  bag. 

As  mentioned  previously,  the  depth  of  a  row  of  pictures 
is  one-quarter  of  an  inch,  while  the  width  of  each  image  is 
three-tenths  of  an  inch.  In  commencing  operations,  we 
will  suppose  that  the  objective  is  at  the  left-hand  side  of 
the  plate,  and  the  first  row  of  pictures  is  to  be  taken.  The 
handle  is  revolved,  and  the  lens  moves  across  the  sensitised 
surface  intermittently,  until  it  reaches  the  right-hand  edge. 
The  first  row  of  pictures  is  completed.  At  this  moment, 
while  the  shutter  is  closed,  the  plate  descends  the  depth 
of  a  picture — one-quarter  of  an  inch — thereby  bringing 
another  strip  of  unexposed  surface  before  the  objective. 
The  lens  now  travels  in  the  reverse  direction,  i.e.,  to  the 
left-hand  side  of  the  plate,  in  a  similar  manner.  When  it 
gains  the  limit  of  its  travel,  the  plate  again  drops  the  depth 
of  a  line  of  images,  and  the  lens  moves  once  more  from  left 
to  right,  this  see-sawing  across  the  plate  in  parallel  rows 
continuing  until  the  bottom  edge  of  the  plate  is  reached. 


• 


THE    BETTINI    GLASS    PLATE   CINEMATOGRAPH. 

The  camera  is  used  for  projection  in  conjunction  with  an  ordinary  lantern.      The  glass  plates  are 
mounted    in  a  rack,  passed  through  the  projector  and  collected  in  a  magazine  bag  beneath. 


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A   SECTION    OF   A    in;  II  I M    GLASS    PLATE    RECORD. 

The  plate  measures  8J  inches  long  by  51,  inches  wide.       'J'here  are  sixteen  successive  pictures,   each 

measuring  \  in.  by  ,•';,  in.,  toa  row    and   ;6  rows,  representing  576  images,  on  a  plate. 


THE    BIRTH    OF    A    FLOWER. 

A  wonderful   Kinemacolor  film.     The  pictures  represent  the  stages  of  growth  on  the  second,   fourth, 
sixth,  and  eighth  days  respectively. — See  pctgt    194. 


[Copyright,  Kineto,  Ltd. 

WAGING    A    HEALTH    CAMPAIGN    BY    MOVING    PICTURES. 

This  film,   representing   flies  upon  putrid  meat,  was  used  in   the  United  States  in   the  war 
against  the  In mst!  fly  with  conspicuous  success. 


xxvn       MOVING  PICTURES  IN  THE  HOME  309 

As  the  toothed  rack  of  the  exposed  plate  falls  away  the 
toothed  holder  of  the  succeeding  plate  is  taken  up  by  the 
mechanism  and  the  cycle  of  operations  continued  until 
the  incident  is  recorded.  There  is  no  break  whatever 
between  two  successive  plates,  as  the  feed  is  positive  and 
accurate,  while  similarly  there  is  no  interruption  in  the 
animation  when  the  travelling  lens  reaches  the  end  of  a 
line,  because  the  movement  of  the  plate  takes  place  during 
the  fraction  of  a  second  when  the  lens  is  covered  by  the 
opaque  sector  of  the  shutter. 

As  each  plate  carries  36  rows  of  pictures,  each  line 
containing  16  images,  it  will  be  seen  that  no  less  than  576 
images,  each  measuring  three-tenths  of  an  inch  in  width 
by  one-quarter  of  an  inch  in  depth,  can  be  recorded  upon 
a  single  plate.  Although  so  small  the  pictures  are  remark- 
ably sharp,  clear,  distinct,  and  full  of  detail ;  indeed,  they 
rival  the  images  upon  the  celluloid  film  in  this  respect. 

Having  obtained  the  negative,  the  positive  is  obtained  by 
contact  printing  upon  another  glass  surface  as  with  a 
lantern  slide.  Now,  for  projection  the  operator  uses  the 
camera  with  which  the  pictures  were  taken,  in  conjunction 
with  an  ordinary  projecting,  or  magic,  lantern,  and  the 
movement  of  the  apparatus  is  precisely  the  same  as  in  taking 
the  photos.  The  positive  plate  in  its  toothed  rack  is  slipped 
into  the  camera  and  the  handle  revolved,  thereby  causing 
the  lens  to  travel  across  the  plate  intermittently.  When 
it  reaches  the  end  of  a  row  of  pictures,  the  plate  is  forced 
downwards,  one-quarter  of  an  inch  at  a  time,  while  another 
rack  and  positive  plate  are  inserted  when  one  plate  is 
exhausted. 

The  principle  of  projection  is  decidedly  novel  and  may 
be  understood  from  the  accompanying  diagram,  Fig.  22. 
The  objective  with  its  prism  is  mounted  on  one  side  of  the 
plate,  while  on  the  other  side  of  the  latter  is  a  second 
prism  on  the  longitudinal  axis  of  the  lantern  condenser. 
The  light  from  the  lantern  B  strikes  the  prism  C  and  there 
is  bent  at  right-angles  towards  the  image  on  the  plate  A. 
Passing  through  the  plate,  it  enters  the  lens  D,  to  which 
the  prism  E  is  attached,  and  once  more  the  ray  is  deflected 


3io 


MOVING   PICTURES 


CHAP. 


at  right-angles  to  be  thrown  upon  the  screen  F.  An 
ordinary  magic  lantern  suffices  for  the  purpose,  and  the 
incandescent  mantle  and  gas  may  be  used  as  an  illuminant 
— petrol  gas  and  acetylene  are  equally  suitable — if  elec- 
tricity or  the  oxyhydrogen  light  is  not  available.  The 
picture  on  the  screen  may  be  of  any  desired  dimensions, 
inasmuch  as  the  small  images,  owing  to  their  sharpness, 
clearness,  and  striking  wealth  of  detail,  enable  enlargement 
to  be  carried  to  any  degree,  so  long  as  the  illuminant  is 
sufficiently  powerful. 

There  is  one  point  which  must  be  explained.  When 
the  lens  in  the  camera  is  at  the  left-hand  edge  of  the  plate, 
owing  to   the  greater   distance  of  the  objective   from  the 


Fig.  22 — The  Optical  Principle  of  Projection  with 
the  Bettini  cineina-a-plaqtie. 

object  photographed,  everything  will  be  of  smaller  propor- 
tions than  when  the  lens  is  at  the  right-hand  edge,  as  then  it 
is  brought  4I  inches  nearer  the  subject.  In  other  words,  as 
the  lens  moves  across  the  plate  from  left  to  right,  the 
dimensions  increase ;  on  the  other  hand,  they  diminish  as 
the  lens  moves  back  again.  This  might  be  considered  to 
be  an  insurmountable  obstacle,  but  it  is  not,  because 
when  the  positive  is  projected  a  different  effect  is  produced. 
The  picture  at  the  left-hand  edge  of  the  plate,  which  in  the 
camera  was  the  smallest,  owing  to  its  greater  distance  from 
the  object,  now  becomes  enlarged  to  a  greater  degree  than 
that  at  the  opposite  end  of  the  row,  since  the  former  is 
4f  inches  farther  from  the  screen.  By  this  arrangement 
a  correction  takes  place,  the  objects  in  all  the  images  in 
a  row  being  brought  to  a  uniform  size. 


xxvn        MOVING  PICTURES  IN  THE  HOME         311 

Seeing  that  continuity  of  motion  is  governed  purely  by 
the  feeding  of  the  plates,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  whole  of  the 
longest  incidents  may  be  photographed.  A  magazine  can 
take  twelve  plates,  or  more,  according  to  desire.  In  the 
former  instance  a  total  of  6,912  pictures  may  be  obtained. 
Seeing  that  each  row  of  pictures  upon  a  plate  is  equivalent 
to  a  foot  of  celluloid  film,  a  single  plate  will  carry  the 
same  number  of  pictures  as  thirty-six  feet  of  the  latter.  On 
this  basis  a  dozen  plates  will  be  equivalent  to  432  feet, 
or  more  than  two  spools  of  celluloid  film,  seeing  that  a 
spool  as  fed  into  the  camera  generally  represents  a  length 
of  200  feet. 

The  most  influential  factor,  however,  is  that  of  running 
costs,  if  the  expense  in  regard  to  sensitised  surface  may 
be  so  termed.  A  strip  of  film  thirty-six  feet  in  length,  the 
equivalent  of  a  Bettini  plate,  at  2^d.,  or  5  cents,  per  foot, 
would  represent  7s.  6d.,  or  approximately  $2.  The  glass 
plate  costs  two  pence  or  four  cents  (both  negative  and 
positive),  so  that  with  the  Bettini  glass  plate  system  an 
incident  recorded  in  6,912  pictures,  and  occupying  about 
seven  minutes  to  take  and  project,  would  cost  only  4s.  ($1) 
for  both  negative  and  positive  plates,  as  compared  with 
£4  1  os.,  or  $22.50,  for  positive  and  negative  film,  to  carry 
the  same  pictorial  record. 

The  possibilities  of  the  Bettini  cinema-d-plaque  system, 
therefore,  are  obvious.  The  invention  brings  the  art  of 
cinematography  within  reach  of  the  amateur ;  introduces 
moving  pictures  to  the  drawing-room  as  completely  and 
cheaply  as  the  phonograph  conveys  sound  to  the  fireside  ; 
provides  the  photographer  with  a  far  more  fascinating 
hobby;  while  its  professional  applications  are  illimitable. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 

MOTION-PHOTOGRAPHY   AS   AN   EDUCATIONAL  FORCE 

There  remains  no  doubt  whatever  that  the  cinemato- 
graph has  completely  won  over  the  great  public — the 
many  millions  who  are  constantly  seeking  fresh  fields 
of  amusement  and  diversion.  Of  all  the  classes  that 
patronise  the  moving-picture  entertainment,  the  children 
form  the  one  most  open  to  its  influence  and  most  respon- 
sive to  what  it  offers  them ;  and  it  is  this  well-known  im- 
pressionableness  of  the  young  mind  that  has  set  people 
thinking  of  the  educational  responsibility  of  the  moving- 
picture  show.  From  this  it  is  but  a  step  to  the  question, 
May  not  the  cinematograph  be  brought  into  the  school- 
room ? 

The  subject  has  several  aspects  that  are  worth  treating 
somewhat  at  length.  The  firm  of  Path6  Freres  has  here, 
as  in  so  many  other  directions,  been  first  in  the  field.  Let 
us  examine  some  of  its  educational  films. 

The  peculiar  properties  possessed  by  the  magnet  are 
profoundly  mysterious  to  the  child.  Text-books  may  be 
written  in  the  simplest  language  and  freely  illustrated  with 
diagrams,  but  the  points  still  remain  somewhat  obscure. 
This  French  manufacturing  company  has  prepared  a  film, 
"The  Magnet,"  in  which  the  well-known  subject-matter 
of  the  school  book  is  illustrated,  and  the  phenomena  de- 
scribed therein  are  demonstrated  in  a  simple  manner  by 
visual  records  of  the  peculiar  properties  possessed  by  the 
magnet. 

The  familiar  experiments  with  the  magnet  and  iron 
filings  are  treated  simply  and  with  endless  variety.      If 


ch.  xxviii        AN   EDUCATIONAL   FORCE  313 

the  pupils  see  the  teacher  perform  the  manipulations  with 
filings  and  magnet  in  the  usual  way,  the  experiment  con- 
veys no  tangible  idea,  and  interest  is  not  greatly  aroused. 
But  when  the  same  magnet  is  thrown  upon  the  screen  in 
movement,  and  is  ten  feet  or  so  in  height,  while  the  iron 
filings  are  so  magnified  that  they  resemble  not  dust,  but 
thorns  or  long  pins,  a  more  convincing  and  indelible  im- 
pression is  conveyed. 

One  may  have  seen  many  diagrams  showing  the  lines  of 
force,  as  they  are  called.  But  no  diagram  can  produce  the 
unforgettable  impression  gained  by  the  sight  of  the  phen- 
omenon itself  occurring  before  the  eyes.  The  iron  filings 
may  be  seen  resolving  themselves  into  the  two  distinct 
groups  about  the  poles,  as  if  imbued  with  life,  and  the 
process  may  be  followed  from  beginning  to  end  with  perfect 
ease,  owing  to  the  size  to  which  the  filings  are  magnified 
in  projection. 

The  operation  of  natural  laws  is  indelibly  impressed 
upon  the  schoolboy  when  he  is  shown  some  novel  experi- 
ment in  physics  carried  out  upon  the  screen.  Physiology 
and  anatomy  can  be  taught  by  producing  pictures  taken 
by  X-ray  photography. 

History  ought  surely  to  be  a  successful  field  for  the 
educational  cinematograph.  The  portrayal  by  Path6  Freres 
of  episodes  during  the  Reign  of  Terror  and  the  Napoleonic 
era  ;  the  representation  of  the  Normans  landing  in  England, 
the  discovery  of  America  by  Columbus — these  and  similar 
pictures  have  already  shown  the  wide  possibilities  of  the 
historical  film.  Of  course,  great  care  must  be  taken  to 
adhere  to  strict  historical  truth  in  fact  and  setting ;  when 
they  will  greatly  serve  to  fix  in  the  pupil's  mind  events 
and  historical  atmosphere,  and  aid  him  in  distinguishing 
various  periods. 

A  film  worthy  of  introduction  into  the  class-room  is 
that  described  in  Chapter  XVII.,  showing  the  birth  of  a 
flower.  The  fact  that  this  film  is  produced  in  natural 
colours  enhances  its  effect ;  a  schoolboy  would  be  hard 
indeed  to  impress  if  he  failed  to  appreciate  the  wonderful 
significance  of  this  evolution  of  the  hyacinth  from  the  bulb 


3H  MOVING  PICTURES  chap. 

to  the  flowering  stage.  Again,  he  is  enabled  to  witness 
upon  the  screen  the  birth  of  the  common  house-fly,  and 
its  entire  span  of  existence.  He  can  see  how  ants  work  and 
live,  and  how  the  bee  manufactures  its  honey.  As  a 
corollary  to  the  matter-of-fact  and  uninteresting  text-book 
the  cinematograph  film  cannot  be  excelled.  It  presents 
in  actual  movement  what  mere  words,  which  have  to  be 
committed  to  memory,  seek  to  convey  without  any  durable 
result.  Indeed,  there  is  not  the  slightest  doubt  that  a 
thousand  pictures  will  impress  themselves  upon  the  school- 
boy's mind,  and  impart  to  him  more  definite  knowledge  of 
their  subject  in  one  minute  than  hours  of  hammering  with 
the  aid  of  text-book  and  blackboard.  Even  actual  ocular 
demonstration  fails  to  be  so  convincing  as  a  projection 
upon  a  whitened  sheet,  where  everything  immediately 
concerned  is  magnified  to  an  extreme  degree. 

The  inventor  of  the  Kinetoscope,  Mr.  Thomas  Alva 
Edison,  is  of  opinion  that  the  cinematograph  will  displace 
all  other  methods  in  the  schoolroom  for  the  teaching  of 
geography.  Both  teachers  and  pupils  will  be  inclined  to 
agree  with  this  dictum.  A  teacher  may  talk  for  hours 
about  the  tremendous  height  of  the  peaks  in  the  Andes, 
the  racial  characteristics  of  the  natives  of  Abyssinia,  or 
the  manner  in  which  rivers  are  born  on  the  flanks  of  mighty 
glaciers.  But  words  sometimes  convey  very  little  to  the 
immature  mind.  Throw  upon  the  screen  a  series  of  pic- 
tures of  an  actual  journey,  and  the  youngster  gleans  the 
facts  without  the  slightest  effort.  He  sees  the  towering, 
snow-capped  rocks  with  their  precipitous  flanks ;  the  melt- 
ing snow  and  ice  flowing  down  from  the  mighty  glacier 
and  forming  a  tempestuous,  rushing  river;  he  sees  in  their 
natural  surroundings  the  folk  of  a  hundred  strange  and 
distant  tribes.  Perhaps  he  is  transported  for  the  time  to 
the  deck  of  a  steamer  driving  its  way  up  through  the 
St.  Lawrence  River  and  the  Great  Lakes.  Books  and 
pictures  have  given  him  but  a  faint  idea  of  these  noble 
waters;  but  when  he  sees  their  beauty,  and  witnesses  the 
enormous  traffic  carried  upon  their  broad  bosoms,  figures 
and  facts  take  on  new  significance,  and  are  never  forgotten. 


2  d 

a. ._ 
—  v 
-  — 
o  z. 

V    - 

T- 

&s 

o.«J 

u  i 


Looking  into  the  Crater  of  the  Volcano. 


Pictures,  Ltd. 


MOUN  I     El  NA    IN    ERUP1  l<  >N. 


The  plumes  of  .-.moke  as  seen  from  the  Observatory. 
One  of  the  most  daring  and  striking  cinematograph  films  evci   taken. 


xxvm  AN   EDUCATIONAL   FORCE  315 

Whatever  scene  he  sees,  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific, 
from  the  Arctic  to  the  Antarctic  circle,  that  scene  becomes 
henceforth  not  a  mere  spot  on  the  map,  but  a  living  reality.. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  series  of  pictures  worthy  of 
inclusion  in  this  category  is  that  obtained  of  Mount  Etna 
in  eruption.  The  cinematograph  operator  displayed 
wonderful  daring  in  venturing  to  the  verge  of  the  crater 
of  this  vent  to  internal  fires.  The  reward  for  his  intrepidity 
certainly  conveys  a  more  realistic  and  vivid  impression  of 
a  belching  volcano  than  the  most  imaginative  flights  of 
description  in  text-books. 

The  success  of  the  educational  campaign  of  the  cinema- 
tograph depends  upon  the  suitability  of  the  film.  The 
cinematographer  has  roved  through  all  the  fields  of  science 
securing  interesting  pictures  in  metallurgy,  natural  his- 
tory, manufacturing  industries,  electricity,  agriculture, 
horticulture,  and  so  forth.  The  educational  value  of  the 
films  now  produced  is  beyond  dispute ;  but  it  may  be  that 
they  are  somewhat  too  old  for  children.  The  film  manu- 
facturers have,  up  to  the  present,  chiefly  consulted  the 
tastes  of  adults ;  and  the  films  of  a  distinctly  educational 
character  which  they  produce  appeal  to  the  mature  rather 
than  to  the  child  mind.  On  the  other  hand,  it  should  not 
be  at  all  difficult  to  produce  films  which,  like  the  one  already 
described,  representing  experiments  with  the  magnet, 
would  give  regular  instead  of  incidental  instruction  upon 
subjects  actually  treated  in  schools — animated  text-books, 
in  short.  But  as  yet  the  picture  producer  has  not  received 
sufficient  encouragement  from  the  educational  authorities 
to  warrant  him  in  preparing  such  films. 

Unfortunately,  the  feeling  against  the  moving  picture 
has  not  been  entirely  eliminated,  despite  its  tremendous 
popularity.  Once  an  energetic  Board  of  Education  realises 
the  possibilities  of  cinematography  as  a  supplement  to 
the  information  conveyed  by  text-books  and  manuals, 
the  film  manufacturers  will  hasten  to  supply  the  demand 
thus  created.  The  last  obstacle  will  have  been  removed; 
for  the  field  presents  no  special  mechanical  difficulties, 
the  only  serious  one  having  been  removed  by  the  discovery 


316  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

of  the  non-inflammable  film.  The  perfecting  of  this  film 
has  obviated  the  necessity  of  confining  the  installation 
within  an  iron  box — a  requirement  which  militated  very 
appreciably  against  the  introduction  of  the  cinematograph 
into  schools. 

A  striking  illustration  of  the  educational  value  of  moving 
pictures  is  revealed  in  the  beautiful  series  of  "Empire" 
pictures  which  are  being  secured  by  Messrs.  William 
Butcher  and  Sons.  They  are  completing  what  may  be 
described  best  as  a  cinematographic  encyclopaedia  of 
Greater  Britain — its  peoples,  resources,  industries,  sports, 
and  scenic  beauties.  Every  corner  of  the  Empire  is  being 
searched  for  entrancing  pictorial  contributions  to  this 
project. 

As  might  have  been  expected,  others  beside  educational 
institutions  have  seen  in  the  moving-picture  show  a  power- 
ful instrument  of  propaganda.  Political,  charitable,  muni- 
cipal, and  numerous  other  organisations  have  pressed  the 
celluloid  ribbon  into  service  to  aid  them  in  their  crusades. 
It  has  been  of  far-reaching  utility  in  preaching  the  gospel 
of  sanitation  and  prosecuting  the  war  against  disease,  for 
the  films  convey  their  lessons  in  a  terribly  realistic  manner. 
The  Americans  have  produced  a  striking  film  for  the  dis- 
semination of  information  as  to  how  to  combat  advan- 
tageously the  ravages  of  the  great  "White  Plague"  of 
consumption.  The  various  American  hygiene  associations 
also  have  pressed  home  their  campaign  against  the 
common  house-fly  with  commendable  vigour  by  means  of 
the  cinematograph.  Other  photographs  of  a  similar 
character  have  been  produced  in  various  places  for  the 
purpose  of  initiating  the  public  into  the  causes  of  certain 
diseases  and  maladies,  and  the  best  means  of  prevention 
or  treatment. 

Medical  science  has  profited  materially  from  the  per- 
fection of  the  art  and  its  application  to  surgery.  It  is  not 
always  possible  for  students  to  be  present  at  a  peculiarly 
delicate  and  abnormal  operation.  Although  the  subject 
may  be  described  at  length  in  the  technical  papers,  words 
fail  to  be  so  emphatic  as  a  pictorial  reproduction  of  the 


xxvin  AN   EDUCATIONAL   FORCE  317 

feat.  Not  only  can  the  operation  be  followed  closely  when 
reproduced  upon  the  screen,  but,  if  desired,  any  particular 
phase  in  the  achievement  can  be  selected,  and  by  enlarge- 
ment upon  photographic  paper  it  can  be  subjected  to  closer 
and  more  minute  investigation  at  leisure. 

Even  the  Government  has  not  failed  to  recognise  the 
power  of  the  cinematograph.  Some  years  ago  Mr.  Robert 
Paul  applied  to  the  War  Office  for  permission  to  film 
scenes  in  a  soldier's  life.  The  facilities  were  granted,  and 
some  first-class  pictures  were  obtained.  They  proved 
immensely  popular  with  the  public,  and  were  far  more 
potent  as  a  means  of  inducing  enlistment  with  the  colours 
than  the  most  glowing  word-pictures  painted  by  glib,  per- 
suasive recruiting  sergeants.  This  idea  has  been  copied 
by  other  nations,  and  to-day  the  cinematograph  is  regarded 
as  an  indispensable  weapon  for  attracting  recruits  to  the 
land  and  sea  services. 

Religious  institutions  have  not  been  backward  in  realis- 
ing the  value  of  animated  pictures  in  preaching  the  gospel 
of  faith.  The  producer,  by  means  of  the  stage  and  actors, 
can  present  any  episode  from  the  Creation  to  the  Resurrec- 
tion. The  world  before  the  Deluge,  the  toil  of  the  Israelites 
in  the  land  of  the  Pharaohs,  the  Sacrifice  of  Abraham,  the 
Passage  of  the  Red  Sea,  with  the  destruction  of  the 
Egyptian  hosts,  the  story  of  Samson  and  Delilah,  the  Fall 
of  Babylon,  scenes  from  the  Life  of  Christ — all  these  and 
many  others  help  to  familiarise  both  old  and  young  with 
the  Bible  stories,  and  add  wonderfully  to  their  convincing- 
ness, as  the  following  episode  shows  :■ — A  teacher  was 
describing  the  Passage  of  the  Red  Sea.  The  children 
followed  his  words  intently ;  and  his  peroration  was  accom- 
panied by  a  piping  voice  exclaiming  : 

"Yes,  teacher,  I  know  that  is  right!  " 

"  Why  ?  "  asked  the  somewhat  startled  teacher. 

"  Because  I  saw  it  !  " 

The  teacher  was  perhaps  prepared  to  chide  at  this  flight 
of  imagination ;  but  the  child  soon  explained  that  the 
previous  evening  she  had  been  to  a  picture  theatre  and 
had  seen  the  Israelites  crossing  the  Red  Sea. 


318  MOVING   PICTURES  ch.  xxvm 

Among  the  American  preachers  the  significance  of  the 
cinematograph  is  beginning  to  be  recognised.  Ministers 
see  in  the  projector  a  valuable  adjunct  to  their  teaching, 
and  are  disposed  to  introduce  it  into  their  churches.  I  am 
at  liberty  to  quote  in  this  connection  a  letter  from  one  of 
the  leading  luminaries  in  American  church  circles,  which 
was  received  by  Mr.  Richard  G.  Hollaman.  The  divine 
wrote:  "My  opinion  is  that  the  moving  picture  is  the 
coming  great  educator.  This  I  believe  to  be  true,  not  only 
in  the  education  of  the  youth,  but  in  the  church.  I  believe 
in  a  very  few  years  every  well-equipped  church  will  have 
a  moving-picture  apparatus,  so  that  the  minister  will  appeal 
to  the  eye  more  than  to  the  ear." 


CHAPTER    XXIX 

RECENT  DEVELOPMENTS  :  THE  GROWTH  AND  POPULARITY  OF 
THE  CINEMATOGRAPH  :  SOME  FACTS  AND  FIGURES  : 
CONCLUSION 

In  the  opening  chapter  of  this  book  cinematography  is 
described  as  an  illusion :  that  the  eye  believes  it  sees 
continuous  animation  in  the  pictures  thrown  upon  the 
screen  in  accordance  with  the  law  of  visual  persistence.  I 
referred  also  to  the  fact  that  an  effort  had  been  made  to 
remove  this  illusory  effect,  and  to  produce  upon  the  white 
wall  by  photographic  agency  results  identical  with  those 
obtainable  by  the  aid  of  the  camera  obscura.  The  outcome 
of  these  investigations,  which  have  been  pursued  patiently 
for  many  years  by  one  whose  name  is  associated  inseparably 
with  the  art  from  its  earliest  days,  W.  F.  Greene,  is  a  new 
type  of  camera  and  projector. 

The  camera  is  fitted  with  two  lenses  mounted  side  by 
side.  It  is  as  if  two  cameras  of  the  usual  type  were  clamped 
together  to  form  a  single  instrument,  the  two  film-moving 
mechanisms  being  driven  by  one  handle,  and  a  single 
shutter,  mounted  centrally,  serving  to  open  and  close  each 
lens  in  turn. 

In  this  system  two  spools  of  film  are  required,  one  for 
each  half  of  the  camera,  and  an  image  is  recorded  upon 
each  sensitised  band  alternately.  The  shutter  with  its 
opaque  sector,  being  mounted  between  the  two  lenses, 
eclipses  one  while  the  other  is  exposed.  The  result  is  that 
two  different  cinematograph  film  records  of  the  same  sub- 
ject are  obtained.  The  left-hand  camera  photographs  those 
incidents  which  are  lost  while  the  film  is  being  moved  in  the 


320  MOVING  PICTURES  chap. 

right-hand  camera  during  the  fraction  of  a  second  the  lens 
of  the  latter  is  covered,  and  vice  versa.  If  the  camera  is 
run  at  a  speed  of  thirty-two  pictures  per  second,  represent- 
ing sixteen  pictures  for  each  lens,  either  of  the  two  films 
when  run  through  the  ordinary  projector  gives  a  faithful 
representation  of  the  event  photographed.  At  the  same 
time,  however,  each  film  gives  a  different  record,  for  the 
simple  reason  that  one  film  carries  the  moving  incidents 
which  the  other  has  lost  during  the  regularly  intermittent 
closing  of  the  lens. 

The  projector  works  upon  a  similar  principle.  There 
are  the  two  objectives  with  attendant  mechanisms  driven 
by  a  single  handle,  mounted  side  by  side,  and  with  a 
common  shutter  mounted  centrally  between.  Projection 
is  identical  with  recording.  The  picture  is  thrown  from 
the  right-hand  objective,  while  the  left  lens  is  covered, 
and  vice  versa. 

At  first  sight  the  advantage  of  such  a  double  system 
might  seem  somewhat  obscure,  but  a  little  explanation  will 
demonstrate  its  advantages.  With  the  single  camera  and 
projector  the  pictures  shown  on  the  screen  are  isolated 
incidents — some  phase  of  motion  must  be  lost  while  the 
lens  is  closed  to  permit  a  further  area  of  unexposed  film  to 
be  brought  into  position  behind  the  lens,  although  the 
interval  of  eclipse  is  very  short  indeed.  With  the  double 
and  alternating  system  complete  continuous  motion  is 
photographed  and  projected. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  this  double  camera  and  projector 
actually  records  and  throws  on  the  screen  more  than  the 
eye  sees.  The  human  organ  works  upon  the  same 
principle  broadly  as  the  single  camera,  because  the 
periodical  eclipse  of  the  eye  by  the  lid,  which  is  known  as 
"blinking,"  interrupts  continuous  vision,  in  just  the  same 
manner  as  the  shutter  of  the  lens  in  its  eclipsing  action. 
Although  the  lid  falls  and  rises  very  quickly  so  that  the 
interruption  of  sight  is  exceedingly  brief,  a  certain  phase 
of  movement  is  lost.  This  is  apparent  when  a  very  swiftly 
moving  object  passes  before  the  eyes.  In  order  to  lose 
no  part  of  the  movement  the  eyes  are  strained,  and  the 


xxix  RECENT   DEVELOPMENTS  321 

periodical  action  of  the  eyelid  is  postponed  so  long  as 
possible.  With  the  double  cinematograph,  therefore,  as 
a  section  of  sensitised  surface  always  is  exposed  during  the 
running  of  the  machine,  either  through  the  right  or  left- 
hand  lens,  it  follows  that  the  whole  of  the  movement  must 
be  photographed.  In  fact,  the  action  is  exactly  the  same 
as  if  the  eyelids  closed  and  opened  alternately.  It  might 
be  explained  in  connection  with  this  physical  action  that 
no  apparent  interruption  in  the  sight  is  conveyed  to  the 
brain,  because  the  movement  of  the  lids  is  very  rapid,  and 
owing  to  the  principles  of  the  law  of  visual  persistence. 

The  pictures  thrown  from  this  double  projector  produce 
an  effect  upon  the  screen  precisely  similar  to  that  of  the 
camera  obscura.  There  is  only  one  difficulty  attending  its 
use.  Unless  the  instrument  is  used  in  a  large  hall,  and  the 
picture  is  thrown  from  a  great  distance,  the  images  do  not 
superimpose  correctly.  They  are  thrown  upon  the  sheet 
at  converging  angles  to  one  another,  and  the  rays  of  light 
accordingly  from  each  lens  do  not  strike  the  sheet  at  right- 
angles  to  the  longitudinal  axis  of  each  objective.  The 
result  is  that  the  picture  is  narrower  slightly  at  one  end 
than  the  other,  and  the  position  of  the  narrow  end  flits  from 
one  side  of  the  sheet  to  the  other,  according  as  to  whether 
the  picture  is  being  thrown  from  the  left  or  right-hand  lens. 
At  short  range  and  with  a  small  picture  this  peculiarity  is 
very  pronounced,  but  as  the  length  of  the  throw — the  dis- 
tance of  the  lantern  from  the  sheet — is  increased,  it  becomes 
less  and  less  observable  until  at  last  it  escapes  detection. 

Although  the  mechanism  requires  two  spools  of  film, 
the  total  length  needed  to  record  faithfully  a  particular 
event  is  no  greater  than  with  a  single  camera  and  projector. 
In  the  latter  case  a  minimum  speed  of  about  sixteen  pictures 
per  second  is  required.  With  the  double  instrument  a 
similar  number  of  exposures  suffices,  for  the  simple  reason 
that  each  lens  records  one  half  the  movement  while  the 
other  photographs  the  second  moiety  of  the  movement. 
This  means  eight  pictures  per  second  for  each  lens,  making 
sixteen  pictures  per  second  for  the  two — the  same  as  by 
the  ordinary  instrument.     The  disadvantage,  of  course,  is 

Y 


322  MOVING    PICTURES  chap. 

that  two  rollb  ot  film  are  required  to  give  a  complete  picture, 
and  care  has  to  be  displayed  to  keep  the  positive  films  in 
pairs  for  the  projector,  while  threading  up  the  latter  is  a 
somewhat  longer  process.  Again,  should  one  film  break 
and  it  become  necessary  to  cut  out  a  few  pictures  to  obtain 
a  perfect  joint,  it  would  be  necessary  to  remove  the  relative 
pictures  to  an  equal  extent  upon  the  second  film.  Under 
these  circumstances,  therefore,  it  would  appear  that  the 
di-optic  projector  would  be  reserved  to  the  more  delicate 
phases  of  cinematography,  such  as  scientific  research. 

The  development  of  cinematography  in  the  past  has  been 
attributable  in  a  very  great  degree  to  the  enterprise  of  the 
French  nation,  and  that  country  still  remains  ahead  of  all 
others  in  this  peculiar  work.  The  valuable  investigations 
of  Dr.  Marey  never  have  been  forgotten,  and  the  work  with 
which  he  was  identified  is  continued  still  by  enthusiastic 
investigators  in  cinematographic  science.  The  "Marey 
Institute  "  is  unique,  in  that  it  is  the  only  establishment  of 
its  class  devoted  to  what  might  be  termed  the  higher 
branches  of  the  art  in  the  world.  It  is  fitted  with  special 
and  complete  apparatuses  for  the  prosecution  of  any 
especial  research  in  which  an  experimenter  may  be  in- 
terested, so  that  he  can  carry  out  his  work  under  the  most 
favourable  conditions.  The  foremost  scientists  of  the 
world,  who  realise  in  moving  pictures  more  than  a  means 
of  amusing  the  public,  are  members  of  the  Institute,  and 
the  results  it  has  achieved  are  of  far-reaching  value. 

A  typical  illustration  of  the  work  carried  out  at  this 
institution  is  described  in  Chapter  XXIV.  M.  Lucien  Bull, 
the  assistant  director,  is  one  of  many  indefatigable  workers 
in  the  particular  field  of  operations  with  which  the  estab- 
lishment is  identified.  Pioneer  investigation  is  fostered, 
and  accordingly  often  follows  highly  interesting  lines, 
not  only  in  regard  to  cinematography  in  its  most  popular 
form,  but  also  in  its  collaboration  with  science  in  one  or 
other  of  its  varied  branches. 

For  instance,  M.  J.  Carvallo  embarked  upon  a  series  of 
investigations  to  combine  the  Rontgen  rays  with  the 
cinematograph    so    as    to    obtain    an    absolutely    reliable 


THE    '•CRADLE    OK    CINEMATOGRAPHY": 
THE    MAREV    INSTITUTE    IN    PARIS. 


BPhEw^^ 


/. 


% 


■  I 


[By permission  oj  tke  Director  oj  tht  Man  \  Instil 
Mil.    LATES1     MARVEL    I.N    MOVING    PICT!   RES. 

<     mbining  the  X-rays  with  the  cinematograph.      One  of  Monsieur  Carvallo's 
remarkable  films. 


A  sensational  incident.      The  heroine  gashing   her   hand  to  explain  t lit-  presence  of  blood 
on  her  sleeve  to  the  Austrian  soldier. 


Hk 


\  mimii    fight   in  the  publii    streel  t"  produce  .'  realistic  battle  scene  between  the   Italian 

anil   Austrian  forces. 


AI'  I  EK    I  II'  I  V    VEARS. 

1'his  film  won  the  first    pri         f  25.000  francs    for    the  Ambrosio   Company  at  the  recent 
Turin  Exhibition. 


xxix  RECENT    DEVELOPMENTS  323 

moving-picture  record  of  what  takes  place  in  the  organs 
of  the  human  body.  It  was  a  difficult  undertaking,  owing 
to  the  peculiar  problems  associated  with  the  task.  Many 
experimenters  had  endeavoured  to  work  with  the  X-rays, 
but  had  failed.  In  the  first  place,  M.  Carvallo  had  to 
evolve  and  construct  a  special  type  of  apparatus  for  his 
purpose.  It  is  of  a  complicated  character,  more  especially 
as  the  exposures  had  to  be  made  at  a  high  speed  per 
second.  Unlike  M.  Lucien  Bull,  whose  apparatus  I  have 
described  already,  M.  Carvallo  resorted  to  the  familiar 
intermittent  motion,  and  in  such  a  way  that  the  number 
of  exposures  may  be  varied  from  every  twenty  seconds  to 
one  per  hour,  according  to  the  character  of  the  subject  under 
investigation.  The  camera  is  driven  by  an  electric  motor, 
and  the  arrangement  is  of  such  a  nature  that  once  set  in 
operation  it  demands  no  further  attention,  even  if  the 
experiment  is  prolonged  over  several  days. 

He  found  also  that  the  standard  cinematograph  film, 
giving  a  picture  one  inch  wide  by  three-quarters  of  an  inch 
deep,  was  not  suited  to  his  purpose,  so  a  special  film  was 
prepared  to  yield  pictures  of  larger  dimensions,  while  the 
sensitiveness  of  the  emulsion  was  also  augmented  very 
appreciably.  This  was  essential,  inasmuch  as  the  dis- 
charges in  the  X-ray  bulbs  are  of  variable  duration,  rang- 
ing, in  fact,  from  1/ 1200th  to  1/ 1500th  of  a  second. 

By  means  of  his  apparatus  he  obtained  some  very  in- 
teresting and  instructive  pictures,  such  as  showing  the 
process  of  digestion  in  the  frog,  mouse,  chicken,  etc.  The 
subjects  were  fed  with  a  peculiar  paste,  or  the  usual  food 
combined  with  basic  bismuth  nitrate.  As  a  result  of  these 
successful  experiments  a  further  application  of  moving  pic- 
tures has  been  revealed.  In  combination  with  the  X-rays 
the  apparatus  should  prove  highly  useful  for  ascertaining 
what  actually  takes  place  under  certain  conditions  in  the 
various  organs  of  the  human  body. 

The  Marey  Institute  undoubtedly  is  the  cradle  of 
cinematography,  and  similar  institutions  should  be  founded 
in  every  country  for  the  prosecution  of  scientific  research. 
Moving  pictures  have  long  since  issued  from  the  purely 

y  a 


324  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

amusing  stage,  and  although  they  will  never  lose  their 
popular  appreciation,  the  sterner  phases  of  work  open  to 
this  craft  should  not  be  neglected,  for  there  is  no  science 
in  which  cinematographic  records  of  certain  phenomena 
would  not  serve  to  widen  our  knowledge,  and  at  the  same 
time  offer  conclusive  evidence  for  the  refutation  of  many 
popular  fallacies,  or  enlighten  us  regarding  the  mysteries 
of  others. 

So  far  as  the  popular  picture  is  concerned,  every  effort  is 
being  made  to  elevate  what  may  be  termed  the  cinemato- 
graph drama.  Sensationalism  is  in  keen  demand,  and  is 
likely  to  maintain  its  measure  of  appreciation  so  long  as 
it  is  free  from  demoralisation.  An  interesting  illustration 
of  the  manner  in  which  this  movement  may  be  fostered  has 
been  offered  this  year  in  connection  with  the  International 
Exhibition  at  Turin.  Prizes  exceeding  40,000  francs  were 
offered  for  the  best  films  in  a  cinematograph  competition, 
the  subjects  to  include  popular  drama,  science,  and  educa- 
tion. The  Grand  Prix  of  25,000  francs  was  awarded  to  the 
Ambrosio  Film  Company  for  the  subject  entitled  "After 
Fifty  Years."  This  concern  has  been  responsible  for  many 
striking  and  magnificent  productions,  which  have  compelled 
attention  as  much  for  photographic  quality,  stage  setting, 
and  technical  excellence  as  for  dramatic  force.  Indeed, 
Signor  Ambrosio,  who  was  formerly  a  well-known  Italian 
portrait  photographic  artist,  and  consequently  was  able  to 
bring  valuable  knowledge  and  technique  into  the  Italian 
cinematographic  industry,  forced  his  way  into  the  closed 
American  market  by  sheer  merit,  and  forcibly  impressed 
upon  the  American  picture  palace  public  the  high  standard 
of  the  films  produced  in  his  native  land.  "After  Fifty 
Years "  is  a  film  of  powerful  dramatic  intensity,  full  of 
that  exciting  incident,  carefully  blended  with  sentiment, 
which  appeals  so  strongly  to  the  picture  palace  clientele, 
especially  the  vivid  scenes  of  fighting  in  the  streets  between 
Austrian  and  Italian  forces  in  the  troublous  times  of  1859. 

The  Ambrosio  Company  also  carried  off  the  first  prize 
of  5,000  francs  for  a  popular  science  film  dealing  with 
"The  Life  of  the  Butterfly"  and  "The  Bee."     This  is  one 


xxix  RECENT   DEVELOPMENTS  325 

of  the  best  natural  history  films  that  has  been  seen  yet, 
for  it  illustrates  the  marvellous  metamorphosis  of  the  cater- 
pillar into  the  butterfly  in  an  attractive  manner.  The  first 
prize  of  5,000  francs  for  educational  films  was  given  to 
the  Cines  Company  of  Rome  for  a  film  entitled  "The 
Little  Sardinian  Drummer,"  which  company  also  secured 
a  prize  of  4,000  francs  for  a  dramatic  subject,  "St.  Francis 
of  Assisi."  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  example  of  the 
Turin  Exhibition  authorities  will  be  followed  in  subsequent 
expositions  of  such  an  international  character,  and  this 
tendency  should  promote  a  healthy  competition  and  friendly 
rivalry  between  the  various  producers  of  all  countries  to 
excel . 

Although  the  picture  palace,  with  its  attractive  facade 
and  brilliantly  illuminated  entrance,  is  a  familiar  building 
in  our  towns  and  cities,  few  people  can  form  any  idea 
of  the  grip  this  form  of  amusement  has  secured  upon  the 
public,  of  its  commercial  proportions,  or  of  its  rapid  ex- 
pansion. Fifteen  years  ago  there  was  not  a  single  theatre 
providing  a  complete  entertainment  with  a  programme  of 
moving  pictures  purely  and  simply. 

The  picture  palace  had  its  birth  in  France,  and  the 
Parisian  public  extended  such  a  warm  greeting  to  the  new 
diversion,  which  offered  a  welcome  and  novel  relief  to  the 
prevailing  forms  of  amusement,  that  it  developed  into  a 
rage.  In  a  short  time  the  craze  spread  throughout  the 
world,  and  moving-picture  theatres  sprang  up  like  mush- 
rooms in  every  civilised  country  between  the  two  Poles. 

At  the  present  day  there  are  some  4,000  picture  palaces 
of  all  descriptions  scattered  throughout  the  British  Isles, 
and  these  are  patronised  by  the  public  in  their  tens  of 
thousands  daily.  The  money  expended  upon  this  form 
of  entertainment  is  incalculable,  but  it  rolls  continually 
into  the  coffers  of  the  theatres  throughout  twelve  or  fourteen 
hours  every  day,  the  larger  proportion  of  these  establish- 
ments offering  a  continuous  show,  with  a  programme 
lasting  i£  hours.  The  remaining  theatres  give  two  per- 
formances, afternoon  and  evening  respectively,  providing 
about  three  solid  hours  of  recreation  and  education  in  each 


326  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

instance.  The  prices  of  admission  for  the  most  part  are 
very  low,  though  in  the  better  class  theatres  they  approach 
somewhat  closely  to  those  prevailing  with  the  modern 
music-hall. 

On  the  Continent  the  picture  palaces  aggregate  several 
thousands,  and  are  supported  by  the  public  with  equal 
enthusiasm.  Curiously  enough,  Germany  has  been  the 
most  lethargic  nation.  For  many  years  an  attitude  of 
complete  indifference  was  maintained  towards  the  cinemato- 
graph. That  country  is  now  waking  up,  but  so  far  as 
the  manufacturing  aspect  of  the  industry  is  concerned,  it 
is  far  behind  the  more  progressive  countries.  The  German 
picture  palaces  depend  for  their  programme  almost  exclu- 
sively upon  foreign  films.  Strange  to  say,  the  English 
productions  appear  to  make  the  strongest  appeal  to 
Teutonic  fancies,  although  the  French,  American,  and 
Italian  producers  are  striving  hard  to  capture  this  highly 
promising  and  expanding  market. 

In  the  United  States  the  development  of  the  movement 
has  been  phenomenal.  I  have  described  already  the 
wondrous  boom  in  "store  shows."  The  greater  majority  of 
these  "palaces"  enjoyed  a  brief  meteoric  career,  as  they 
became  superseded  by  more  pretentious  buildings  with 
perfection  in  comfort  and  luxury.  To-day  there  are  about 
1 4,000  moving-picture  theatres  appealing  for  support  be- 
tween the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  seaboards.  It  is  computed 
that  these  establishments  are  visited  by  nearly  5,000,000 
men,  women,  and  children  every  day.  Although  low  prices 
for  admission  rule,  it  is  estimated  that  about  $130,000,000, 
or  ^"26,000,000,  are  spent  by  the  American  public  upon 
t-his  form  of  amusement  in  the  course  of  twelve  months. 

The  coming  of  the  picture  palace  has  created  a  new  race 
of  playgoers  who  find  infinite  delight  in  the  varied  pro- 
gramme offered  upon  the  screen.  At  the  same  time,  how- 
ever, the  legitimate  and  vaudeville  theatres  have  been 
deprived  of  much  of  their  support.  This  effect  is  reflected 
by  the  number  of  buildings  originally  built  for  dramatic 
presentations  which  have  had  to  close  their  doors  for  lack 
of  patronage.     When  converted  and  re-opened  under  the 


xxix  RECENT   DEVELOPMENTS  327 

magic  sway  of  the  projector,  film,  and  sheet,  however,  they 
have  embarked  upon  a  remarkably  prosperous  new  lease 
of  life. 

The  stage  in  Great  Britain  is  threatened  in  a  similar 
manner.  A  few  years  ago,  when  the  music-hall  entertain- 
ment was  overhauled  and  an  entirely  new  era  was  created, 
the  legitimate  theatre  suffered  severely.  Bitter  antagonism 
developed  and  has  prevailed  between  the  two  caterers  for 
public  amusement.  Now  both  are  being  threatened  by  a 
common  enemy.  The  picture  palace,  which  has  been 
despised  for  so  long,  is  making  its  influence  felt.  In  London 
the  competition  is  not  experienced  so  keenly,  perhaps,  as 
in  the  provinces,  where  many  theatres  have  succumbed  to 
the  attack  of  moving  pictures. 

There  is  no  indication  that  the  movement  has  gained  the 
height  of  its  success.  Moving  picture  palaces  are  being 
built  and  opened  on  all  sides  every  day.  The  irresistible 
force  with  which  the  cinematograph  is  sweeping  forward 
is  proved  by  the  enormous  quantity  of  film  which  is  pro- 
duced. Great  Britain  is  an  open  market  for  producers 
throughout  the  world,  and  at  the  present  day  something 
like  150,000  feet  of  new  subjects  are  offered  to  the  picture 
palaces  every  week.  If  the  present  demand  is  maintained 
together  with  the  rate  of  production,  this  volume  will  be 
doubled  within  the  next  five  years.  The  output  in  America 
likewise  is  enormous,  although  in  that  country  it  is  con- 
fined for  the  most  part  to  the  productions  of  home  firms, 
the  foreign  film  being  allowed  to  enter  only  in  small 
quantities.  The  Motion  Picture  Patents  Company,  com- 
posed of  the  largest  members  in  the  United  States' 
manufacturing  industry,  and  swearing  allegiance  to  the 
Edison  patents,  has  an  aggregate  output  of  about 
1,500,000  feet  per  week,  each  producer  contributing  from 
three  to  five  new  subjects  to  this  total. 

This  community  of  interests,  which  was  formed  primarily 
to  eliminate  the  objectionable  pictures  which  were  being 
shown  extensively  throughout  the  country,  and  which  were 
responsible  for  considerable  obloquy  being  hurled  against 
the    cinematograph,    arranged    on    its    formation    to    pay 


328  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

Mr.  Edison  a  royalty  of  half-a-cent,  or  one  farthing,  upon 
every  foot  of  film  which  they  printed  in  the  United  States. 
On  the  above  total  output,  therefore,  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  famous  American  derives  a  revenue  of  $7,500,  or 
£1  ,500,  per  week  from  the  American  moving-picture  loving 
public. 

The  financial  investments  in  the  industry  in  all  its 
complex  branches — film  manufacture,  play  producing, 
machine  making,  picture  palaces,  etc. — represent  several 
millions  sterling,  while  tens  of  thousands  of  men, 
women,  and  children  find  employment  in  different 
capacities.  Although  it  might  appear  that  there  are  suffi- 
cient producers  in  operation  at  present  for  the  world's 
needs,  this  is  far  from  being  the  case.  New  markets  are 
being  opened  up  constantly,  while  others  are  in  the  early 
stages  of  development.  When  the  industry  in  these  new 
centres  commences  to  move  forward  in  a  manner  charac- 
teristic of  the  expansion  in  the  older  countries,  the  demand 
for  film  will  become  twice  or  thrice  what  it  is  to-day. 
Consequently  there  is  ample  room  for  doubling  the  existing 
manufacturing  facilities.  The  promise  of  the  future  is 
shown  conclusively  from  the  fact  that  the  foremost  film- 
play  manufacturers  in  France,  Italy,  and  the  United 
States  are  extending  and  enlarging  their  plants  to  meet 
the  increasing  demands  for  their  particular  products. 

One  might  naturally  ask  :  How  is  Great  Britain  benefit- 
ing from  this  wonderful  expansion  ?  So  far  as  film-play 
production  is  concerned,  there  is  every  indication  that  this 
country  will  profit  now  that  conservatism  is  being  aban- 
doned. The  fiscal  position  places  the  English  manufac- 
turer somewhat  at  a  disadvantage,  but  this  handicap  can 
be  removed  entirely  by  the  display  of  more  financial  con- 
fidence in  the  film-play  producing  business,  where  the 
law  of  the  "survival  of  the  fittest"  is  waged  to  its  logical 
conclusion.  A  few  years  ago  the  British  product  was 
distinctly  inferior  to  the  foreign  films,  whether  considered 
from  the  acting,  dramatic,  photographic,  or  any  other  point 
of  view.  Even  to-day  the  British  films  are  not  quite  up 
to   the  technical  standard  of   the   foreign    manufacturers, 


xxix  RECENT   DEVELOPMENTS  329 

while  the  histrionic  quality  is  deficient.  The  plays  likewise 
lack  that  grip  incidental  to  the  foreign  picture  dramas,  and 
there  should  be  excellent  scope  in  this  country  for  com- 
petent and  imaginative  picture-playwrights. 

The  British  producers  have  failed  also  to  recognise  the 
merit  of  the  stock  company,  on  the  plea  that  the  public 
tires  of  seeing  the  same  faces  time  after  time  in  success- 
sive  plays.  The  fallacy  of  this  contention  has  been  recog- 
nised at  last,  because  the  public  now  has  its  film  idols  on 
the  screen,  in  just  the  same  way  as  it  has  its  footlight 
favourites  on  the  stage.  It  is  doubtful,  however,  whether 
the  English  producers  will  ever  rise  to  the  same  plane  in 
this  respect  as  their  contemporaries  in  the  United  States, 
who  gamble  practically  for  the  exclusive  services  of  actors 
and  actresses.  Some  of  the  American  cinematograph  stars 
receive  fabulous  salaries,  while  even  the  smaller  and  more 
obscure  members  of  the  companies  receive  wages  far 
in  advance  of  what  they  would  obtain  for  similar  work 
on  the  legitimate  stage.  The  protected  nature  of  the 
American  industry,  however,  favours  such  tactics,  which 
probably  will  prevail  only  for  a  time. 

There  is  every  evidence  that  the  British  producers  are 
making  up  leeway.  The  Hepworth  Manufacturing  Com- 
pany, for  instance,  which  is  probably  the  foremost  produc- 
ing company  in  this  country,  recently  has  produced  several 
powerful  and  excellent  film-plays.  They  have  extended 
the  stock-company  practice,  and  the  increasing  popularity 
of  the  "Hepwix"  films  offers  convincing  testimony  to  the 
value  of  this  procedure.  The  Colonies  have  become  satiated 
with  the  American  products,  and  turn  with  relief  to  the 
English  films,  but  the  supply  is  not  equal  to  the  demand. 
Even  the  American  public  is  nauseated  with  its  home 
productions,  and  as  it  appreciates  the  work  of  British 
dramatists,  so  it  approves  of  the  British  film  play. 

If  England  is  behind  her  foreign  rivals  in  the  production 
of  picture  plays,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  London  is  destined 
to  become  the  world's  clearing-house  for  films.  Every  large 
foreign  manufacturer  has  his  representative  in  the  British 
metropolis,  where  the  transactions  in  this  article  aggregate 


330  MOVING   PICTURES  chap. 

a  large  sum  every  week.  The  Colonial  picture  palace 
proprietor,  film  renter,  or  middleman  retains  a  pur- 
chasing agent  in  London,  who  scans  the  new  productions 
as  they  appear,  to  discover  their  suitability  for  the  par- 
ticular corner  of  the  world  for  which  he  is  acting.  These 
agents  are  autocrats,  and  consequently  the  subjects  have 
to  be  brought  direct  to  them  for  approval.  The  manu- 
facturers realise  the  situation,  and  as  the  Colonial  market 
is  highly  promising,  spare  no  effort  to  secure  its  capture. 

The  suggestion  has  been  made  that  records  of  the  most 
important  events  of  to-day,  such  as  the  Coronation  of  King 
George  V.,  the  Unveiling  of  the  Victoria  Memorial,  the 
Durbar,  and  so  forth,  should  be  preserved  in  a  museum 
for  the  benefit  of  generations  a  century  or  more  hence. 
Impressions  of  the  voices  of  our  greatest  singers  are  being 
preserved  for  posterity,  and  the  question  has  been  asked 
why  historical  cinematographic  films  should  not  be  treated 
in  the  same  manner.  This  is  by  no  means  a  new  idea. 
Robert  Paul  advanced  the  same  plea  in  the  early  days 
of  the  art,  but  there  were  many  objections  against  the 
proposal  which  are  just  as  acute  to-day.  The  greatest  is 
the  perishable  character  of  the  celluloid  film,  and  also  of 
the  photographic  image  upon  the  emulsion.  Both  would 
deteriorate,  even  if  preserved  in  hermetically  sealed  cases, 
with  the  flight  of  time,  and  the  chances  are  if  a  film 
were  held  for  one  hundred  years  that  it  would  be  found 
useless  when  opened  at  the  end  of  that  period. 

The  question  often  arises :  What  becomes  of  the 
films?  Bearing  in  mind  the  thousands  of  feet  of  new 
subjects  which  are  introduced  to  the  market  every  week, 
it  is  but  natural  to  think  that  there  must  be  an  immense 
accumulation  of  old  subjects.  When  a  new  subject  sees 
the  light  it  passes  through  its  first  "run"  among  the 
foremost  picture  palaces  of  the  country.  Then  it  is  returned 
to  the  renter,  who  dispatches  it  upon  a  second  journey 
among  the  smaller  halls.  Once  more  it  comes  home,  other- 
wise to  the  shelves  of  the  renter,  as  a  rule  bearing  sad 
evidences  of  its  service.     If  of  sufficient  interest,  the  film 


xxix  RECENT    DEVELOPMENTS  331 

undergoes  a  third  run  among  the  cheapest  halls,  and  upon 
the  completion  of  this  round  it  is  either  shipped  abroad 
to  the  smaller  colonies,  or,  scratched  and  torn,  it  is  offered 
for  sale  at  a  bargain  price.  The  end  is  tragic:  the  film 
slips  from  sight  in  flame  and  smoke. 


INDEX 


Abruzzi,     Duke     of,     cinemato- 
graphy, 128 
Acetylene,   as  illuminant,  98 
Acres,  experimenter,   16 
Actors    and    Actresses,     149-151 ; 

accidents,      156,      157,      173; 

special  companies,  151  ;  kine- 

macolor,   151 
Advertisements,  moving,  261,  262 
"After  Fifty  Years"  (film),  324 
"Agrippina,"   film,   175 
Alhambra    Theatre,    London,    4; 

Derby  film,   116 
Allefex,     sound     producer,     140; 

special  sounds,  141,  142 
Amateur    operators,    87;    Bettini 

glass      plates,       306       foil.  ; 

Bleriot's     flight     film,     301  ; 

"  Kinora  "  system,  302    foil. 
Ambrosio  Film  Company,  324 
American     Biograph     Company, 

155 

Kinetoscope  Company,   35 

Mutoscope  Company,  studio 

described,   105 

Aniline  dyes,  289 

Animated   advertisements,    261 

"Animated"  newspapers,  277 
foil.;  circulation,  284;  com- 
pared with  printed  news- 
paper, 285 ;  effect  on  picture 
theatre,  284;  length  of  film, 
282 

Animated  photography  (see  Cine- 
matography) 

"Animated  Putty"  (film),  235 

Animatograph,  33  foil. ;  at 
Alhambra  Theatre,  116 

Announcement  films,  262 

Anschiitz,  Ottomar,  20 

Anti-firing  devices  (see  under 
Fire) 

"  Antonv  and  Cleopatra,"  film, 
178; 

Apparitions,   222-225 


Armstrong,  C,  259-60 

Asquith,     Right     Hon.      H.     H. 

(film),  261 
Austin-Edwards  Co.,  50 
Automatic  safety  cut-off  shutter, 

95 

"Automobile     Accident"     (film), 

211 
Auxetophone,    186 

Back    Cloth,    in    trick    pictures, 

241,  228 
Ballistics,  276 
Barker,  William,  174 
Base,  definition,  25 
Baucus  (American  agent),  35,  49 
"  Bee,  The  "  (film),  324 
"  Best  Cigarette,  The  "  (film),  261 
Bettini     glass     plate     cinemato- 
graph, 306  foil. 
"  Big    Picture    Play,"     169,     175, 

177-78 
"  Big   Swallow,"    A    (film),    254 
Biocolor,  298 

"Black  Maria"  (studio),  105 
Blackton,    J.    Stuart,    171  ;    trick 

pictures,  242 
Blair,  roller  photography,  28 
Blair  Company,  29 
Blenot's    Channel    flight    (film), 

301 
Blinking,    compared    with    action 

of  shutter,  320 
Blockless  Motiograph,  99 
Blue-black   light  (in   panchroma- 

tising),   294 
Blue   screen,    295;   compensation 

for  absence,  296 
Boys,  Prof.  Vernon,  flight  of  pro- 
jectiles, 274 
Bull,    Lucien,    264;   experiments, 

265    foil. ;    Marey    Institute, 

322 
Bull   Camera    (illus.),    269-270 
Butcher  and  Sons,  316 


MOVING    PICTURES 


334 


INDEX 


"Cain  and  Abel,"  film,  177 

Call-board,   in  theatre,   152 

Camera,  65  foil.,  107;  Bettini 
camera,  306  foil. ;  double 
camera,  319;  electric  spark 
apparatus,  265  foil. ;  for  ex- 
plorers, 73 ;  preparation  for 
exposure,  69,  70 

obscura,  7,  321 

Cannock,  Frank,  49 

Capus  (picture  playwriter),  160 

Carvallo,   M.   J.,  323 

Celluloid  film,  24  foil.  ;  accidental 
discovery,  28;  Blair's  experi- 
ments, 28 ;  development  of 
industry,  51;  Eastman  and 
Walker,  26  foil.;  effect  of 
climate,  53;  inflammability, 
54;  length,  55;  manufac- 
ture, 52 ;  manufacturers, 
50;  non-inflammable,  55; 
waste   product,    56,    330 

Cellulose-acetate,  55 

"Cheese  Mites,  The"  (film),  201 

Chemist  :  instantaneous  photo- 
graphy, 2 ;  colour  cinemato- 
graphy, 292 

Chevreul's  black,   20 

"Chronicle"  (animated),  278 

Chronophone,  185;  differential 
gear,  188;  Green's  appara- 
tus,   107 ;   projector,    186 

Chronophotography,  16;  develop- 
ment, 322  foil. 

Cinema-a-plaque,  Bettini,  306 
foil. 

Cinematograph  (C  i  n  e  m  a  t  o- 
graphe),   43-49 

"Cinematograph    fiend,"    11 

Cinematograph  plays,  146  foil.  ; 
dress-rehearsal,  153 ;  produc- 
tion,  152  ;  realism,  155 

Theatre,  130  foil.;  in  remote 

districts,  132 ;  development, 
133 ;  electrical  equipment, 
136  (see  also  Picture  Palace) 

Trust       (American),        no; 

effect  on   British  trade,    in 

Cinematography  (or  Animated 
Photography)  : — 
'1)  General:  Amateurs,  301; 
army  recruiting,  effect  on, 
317;  action  of  brain  in  con- 
nection with,  5  ;  educational 
value,  312  foil. ;  effect  on 
theatre,  174;  expansion  of  in- 


dustry, 327;  litigatiun,  nu; 
optical  principle  explained, 
90 ;  scientific  value  (see 
Scientific  Research) ;  various 
uses,  316-318;  waste  in  the 
industry,  86 
(2)  History  and  Development : 
Instantaneous  photography, 
1-3  ;  early  attempts,  10-22  ; 
kinetoscope,  30-33 ;  animato- 
graphy,  33  foil. ;  cinemato- 
graph, 43-49 ;  micro-cinema- 
tography, 161  foil. ;  in  Italy, 
174;  phono-cinematography, 
180 ;  electric  spark  cinemato- 
graphy, 265  toll. ;  natural 
colour  cinematography,  287 
foil. ;  recent  developments, 
319  foil.;  growth  and  popu- 
larity, 323  foil. 

Cinephone,    180 

Cines   Company   (see   below) 

Societa       Italiana,       175-77 ; 

"  Life  of  Christ  "  (film),  177; 
toning,  300;  Turin  Exhibi- 
tion films,  325 

"Clown  and  his  Donkey"  (film), 
260 

Collins,   Esm£,    107 

Collodion  process,  defects,  24 

Colour  pictures,  287;  "A  Fire" 
film,  288;  aniline  dyes,  289; 
colour  sensitiser,  293 ;  com- 
pared with  monochrome, 
299 ;  Coronation  records, 
297 ;  stencil  process,  288 

Colour-sensitising  solution,   293 

Comandon,  Dr.  J.,  162 ;  investi- 
gations,   166 

Commutator,    182 

Composition   of   news   film,  282 

Continuous  motion,  32;  for  ex- 
cessive speed,   265 

Control  board  of  chronophone, 
187 

"Coronation"  film,  kinemacolor, 

297 
Coronation      films,      competition 

for,  119 
Cranz,  Dr.  C,  274 

Daguerre,   exposure  experiment, 

1 
Daily  cinematograph  newspaper, 

prospects  of,  286 
Dancing  furniture,   209 


INDEX 


335 


Daylight  projection,    142 

Demeny,  Georges,  21 

Derby  film,    116,   117 

Desvignes,   16 

Detaille,   15 

Developing  apparatus,  85,  86 

solution,  79 

Development  of  pictures,  76  foil. ; 

long  films,  79,  80 
Diaphragm,       manipulation       in 

trick  pictures,  226 

stop,  in  trick  camera,  222 

"  Dime  Show,"   131 

Di-optic    projector    (see    Double 

Projector) 
"  Dissolution  of  the  Government, 

The  "  (film),  257 
Dog-movement,  93;  in  Gaumont 

chrono,    100 
Donisthorpe  (experimenter),   16 
Double  camera,  219  foil.;  disad- 
vantage of,  321 

exposure  process,  225 

printing,   200 

projector,    320    foil. 

Drying  operation,  79 

Dumas,     Alexandre,     interest    in 

Muybridge's  experiments,    15 
Du   Mont  (experimenter),    16 
"  Duped,"  206 

Eastman  and  Walker,  26 
Eastman  Dry  Plate  Company,  26 

Kodak  Company,  26,  50 

Ebonite  disc  in  electric  spark  ap- 
paratus, 267 
Eden     Musee — "  Passion     Play," 

106 
Edison,  Thomas  Alva,  29;  educa- 
tional films,  314;  film  produc- 
tion, 113;  the  kinetoscope, 
30;  litigation,  no;  projector, 
100;  royalty  on  films,  328; 
studios,  105,  112 
Edison      Company,      151;       riot 

scene,   157 
Edison's  First  Kinetoscope,   31 
Edison      standard      gauge,      57 ; 

drawbacks,  59 
Educational  film,   312  foil. 
Election  films,  257,  258 
Electrical  tachyscope,   20,   21 
Electricity  as  illuminant,  98 
Electric  spark,  268 
spark    apparatus,    265  ;    cop- 
per strips,  268 


t>park    cinematography,    265 

foil. 
Electrodes,   magnesium,   268 
Empire   Film  Mender,    138 
Empire  Film  Winder,  137 
"Empire"  series  of  pictures,  316 
Empire  Trick  Camera,  216 
Essanay  plant,  112 
Ethyl-violet,  293 
Exposure  of  film,  274 
Eye,  as  camera,  4 

Fairy,  production  of,  244 

"  Fall  of  Babylon  "  (film),  177 

Faust,  film  of,  175;  on  the  Viva- 
phone,   184 

Film,  23  foil.;  American,  171; 
British,  328;  European,  171; 
exposure,  274 ;  firing  of,  95  ; 
"Hepwix,"  329;  for  kineto, 
305;  length,  149;  manipula- 
tion in  trick  pictures,  220 ; 
non-inflammable,  316;  re- 
pair, 137 ;  waste  product,  56, 
330 ;  weekly  output,  327 

gauge,   33,    57 

punch,  72 

tinting,  288,   289 

Film-trap,    100 

Film-winder,   137;  illus.,  77 

Financial   investments,    328 

Finsbury  Technical  College  : 
Theatrograph,  39 

Fire,  protection  against,  136 ; 
anti-firing  devices,  95,  96;  in 
Empire  projector,  10 1 

First  Moving  Pictures,  14 

Fixing  solution,  79 

Flashing  :  in  trick  pictures,  249 

Flicker,  cause  of,  7 

Flight  of  projectiles,  274  foil. 

"Fountain  of  Youth"  (film),  214 

Fox,  William,   145 

Free-lance  producer,   160 

Fringing,  298;  elimination,  299 

Gaevert   firm,    50 
Gate,  38 

Gaumont,  Leon,  184  foil. 
(raumont   Chronopfione,    186 
Gaumont  chrono  projector,   100 
Company,        no;        "Auto- 
mobile       Accident,"        211; 
chronophone,  185  ;  Coronation 
films,    119,    120;    Rob     Rov, 
158;     The     Little     Milliner's 


33^ 


INDEX 


Dream,    231 ;   The   Magnetic 
Gentleman,   210;  The  Siren, 
227  ;  The  Travelling  Bed,  209 
Gaumont  Graphic,  279  ;  bi-weekly 
issue,     284;     branch    offices, 
280;   circulation,   282;   Coro- 
nation number,  283 
"Gazette"  (animated),  278 
Geissler  tube,  in  Anschiitz  tachy- 

scope,  21 
Gelatine,  proposed  use,  23 
Gelatino-bromide  process,  24 
Gerome,  interest  in   Muybridge's 

experiments,  15 
Glass  plates,  Bettini  system,  306 

foil. 
Goupil,    interest   in    Muybridge's 

experiments,  15 
Grand      Central      Palace,      New 

York,  roof  stage,  106 
Grand   Prix   film,   324 
"Graphic"  (animated),  278 
Green  screen,  291;    Smith's    ex- 
periments, 295 
Greene,  W.  F.,  17,  107;  biocolor, 
298 ;    colour    sensitiser,    293 ; 
double  camera,   319;  natural 
colour  cinematography,   289 ; 
three-    and    two-screen    sys- 
tems, 295 
Greene  and  Evans,   22 

Harris,  Sir  Augustus,  and  the 

Theatrograph,  40 
Harris  Safety  Shutter,  96 
"  Haunted  Curiosity  Shop,  The  " 

(film),  203 
"  Haunted  Hotel,  The  "  (film),  242 
Hazelton  Picture  Palace,  132,  133 
"  Hepwix  "  film,  329 
Hep  worth,  T.  C.,  98 
Hepworth   Company,    151 
Manufacturing     Co.,     Ltd., 

329;  Vivaphone,   182 
Himalayas,  scenic  films,   128 
Hollaman,   Richard  G.,  47;  pro. 

duction  of  Passion  Play,  106 
Hove  Camera  Club,   107 

Iceland  spar,  for  condenser,  268 

Illuminant,  98;  electric  spark,  265 

Imperator  projector,  100 

Independent  or  "free-lance" 
producers,    160 

Insects,  flight  of,  270;  ap- 
paratus for  photographing 
(illus.),  266,  272 ;  Coleoptera 


records,  273 ;  Hymenoptera 
records,  272 ;  scientific  value, 
274 

Instantaneous  photography,  2 ; 
analysis  of  movement,   13 

Intermittent  motion,  32; 

Lumiere's  camera,  43;  Paul's 
camera,  38,  92 ;  for  excessive 
speed,  265 

International  Exhibition,  Turin, 
film   competition,    324 

Interrupter,  electric  spark  appa- 
ratus, 267 

Inventor's   fiddle,   21 

"  Investiture  of  the  Prince  of 
Wales,"  Kinemacolor,  297; 
monochrome,    120-122 

Ives,  Frederick  E.,  287;  Ives's 
system,  299 

Jansen,  Astronomer,   17 

Kalem,   manufacturing  firm,   171 

Kelvin,  Lord,   film  perforation,  58 

Kinemacolor,  295  foil. ;  appara- 
tus, 135 ;  Coronation  films, 
297;  "fringing,"  298;  limit- 
ations, 297;  picture  plays, 
298;  scenic  films,  125;  stock 
company,  151;        studio- 

theatre,   108 

"  Kinemacolor  Special,"  126 

Kineograph,  302 

Kineto,    Ltd.,    190 

Kinetograph,    179 

Kinetoscope,  The,  30;  heat  ab- 
sorbent, 46;  Edison's  studio, 

105 

Kinora,  302   foil. 
Kramm  projector,  101 

Lantern  Room  (see  Operating 
room) 

Latham,  apparatus,  47 

Laurrilard,  Mr.,  of  Marble  Arch 
Electric  Theatre,  and  "  Inves- 
titure of  the  Prince  of 
Wales"  film,  120 

Lee  and  Turner,  natural  colour 
process,  290 

"Life  in  the  Jungle"  (film),  172- 

74 
••Life  of  Christ"  (film),    177 
"Life    of    the    Butterfly,    The" 

(film),  324 
Lilliputian  figures,  231   foil.;  ex- 
planation, 202 


INDEX 


337 


"Little  Milliner's  Dream,  The" 
(film),  231-235 

"  Little  Sardinian  Drummer, 
The  "  (film),  325 

Loew,  Marcus,  144 

Lubin,  of  Philadelphia,  158; 
studio,    1 12 

Lumiere  and  Sons,  43  foil. ; 
manufacture  of  film,  50;  per- 
foration of  film,  44 ;  projector 
(illus.),  45  5 

"Macbeth,"  picture  play,  175 
"  Magic  Banquet  "  (film),  239,  240 

Magic  pictures,  207  foil. ;  ex- 
planation, 209  foil. 

"  Magic  Sword,  The  "  (film),  199- 
201 

"Magnet,  The"  (film),  312 

"  Magnetic  Gentleman "  (film), 
210 

Maguire,  American  agent,  35,  49 

Make-up  of  news  films,   282 

Mallez,   Dr.,   15 

Maltese  Cross  movement,  92,  101 

Marey,  Dr.  E.  J.,  17  foil.,  322; 
camera,  18,  19;  experiments, 
18,   264 

Marey  Institute,   322,   264 

Marey's  Camera  showing  Shutter 
with  Radial  Slots,   19 

Mask,  of  printing  apparatus,  81 

Medical  science  and  cinemato- 
graphy, 316;  micro-cinemato- 
graphy,  161 

Meissonier,  interest  in  Muy- 
bridge's  experiments,  13,  15 

M£lies,   French  conjurer,  197 

Microbes,  moving  pictures  of,  161 
foil. 

Micro-cinematography,  161  foil.  ; 
Dr.  J.  Comandon,  162;  diffi- 
culties, 163 ;  experiments 
with  blood,  166;  magnifica- 
tion, 168;  "phenomenon  of 
agglutination,"  167;  popular 
science,  190 ;  shutter,  165 ; 
sleeping  sickness,  166 

"  Miracle   (The),"   film,    177 

Mirror,  in  trick  pictures,  244;  in 
electric  spark  apparatus,  267 

Monochrome  cinematography,  299 

Moorhouse,  A.   H.,   140 

Motion,  records  of,  animal 
motion,  13;  flight  of  insects, 
273 ;  flight  of  projectiles,  274 
foil. 


Picture    Patents    Company, 

327 
"Motorist,  The  (?)"  (film),  203- 

205 
Moul,  Mr.  (of  Alhambra  Theatre), 

41;  picture  plays,  104 
Mount  :  for  projector,  99 
for  sensitised   emulsion,    23, 

24 ;  Eastman's  experiments,  27 
"Mount      Etna      in      Eruption" 

(film),  315 
Movement,  illusion  explained,  6; 

illustrated,  8 
"  Movement,"  record  of  Marey's 

experiments,  20 
Movement   and   sound  combined, 

Edison,    179;  Gaumont,  184; 

Hepworth  Company,  182 
Moving  picture  circuits,    143 
Pictures  :      (see      Cinemato- 
graphy) 
Mutoscope  Company,    105 
Muybridge,  12-16;  demonstration 

in    Paris,    15 ;   studio,    13 

Natural  colour  cinematography, 
287  foil.;  "  Biocolor,"  298; 
expense,  294;  Greene's  pro- 
cess, 289;  "  Kinemacolor," 
296 ;  Lee  and  Turner,  290 ; 
new  process,  299 ;  three 
screens,  291 ;  two  screens,  295 

light,  290 

New  Guinea,  films,  128 

Newman  and  Sinclair  Camera 
(illus.),  73 

Newman-Sinclair  Printing  Appa- 
ratus, 81 

Netvman-Sinclair  Reflex  Moving 
Picture  Camera,  74 

Nickel  show,    131 

N.S.   Film  Perforator,  63 

Olympia  :  First  picture  palace,  40 
"  One    turn    one  picture "    move- 
ment, 235-240 ;  by  Americans, 
238;  in  silhouette  trick  films, 

259 
Operating  room  or  lantern  room, 

136;  law  relating  to,  135 
Optical    principle     of    the     Cine 

matograph,  90 
Optical     principle     of     projection 

with    the    Bettini    cinema-a- 

plaque,   310 
"  Ora  Pro  Nobis  "  (film),  202 
Oxy-hydrogen   limelight    as    illu- 

minant,  98 


333 


INDEX 


"  Panchromatic  "  film,  293  ;  de- 
terioration, 294 

"  Panchromatism,"  293;  process, 
294 

Paper,  as  base,  24,  303 ;  East- 
man, 27 

negative,  303 

Parkes,  A.,  26 

Parkesine,  26 

Parsons,  Hon.  C.  A.,   186 

Passion  Play,  106 

Pathe\  Charles,  35 

Pathe"  Freres,  109 ;  colour  pic- 
tures, 288;  development  of 
picture  play,  169;  film,  312; 
"The  Magnet,"  312;  micro- 
cinematography,  163 ;  pro- 
jector,    101 ;     village     scene, 

158 

Paul,  Robert  W.,  34;  camera,  37, 
66-69  ;  colour  pictures,  288 ; 
intermittent  gear,  92  ;  mount 
for  lantern,  99 ;  "  Ora  Pro 
Nobis,"  202  ;  "  Railway  Colli- 
sion," 205;  "Scenes  in 
Soldier's  Life,"  317;  "The 
Magic  Sword,"  199;  "The 
Cheese  Mites,"  201;  "The 
(?)  Motorist,"  203;  topical 
films,  116  foil.;  trick  pic- 
tures,  198 

Paul's  Improved  "  Cross  "  Driv- 
ing Mechanism,  94 

Peep-hole  machine,  33 

"  Penny  gaff,"  131 

Perforating  machines  :  "  N-S  " 
perforator,  63 ;  Rotary  per- 
forator, 61;  Urban- Joy,  64; 
Williamson  perforator,  62 

Perforation  gauge,  57;  Edison 
standard,    57;  Lumiere's,    59 

of    film,    33 ;    necessity    for 

mathematical  precision,  60 ; 
Lord  Kelvin's  suggestion,  58; 
Lumiere's  method,  44 

Phenaktiscope,  11 

Phono-cinematograph  (see  below) 

Phonograph,  with  cinemato- 
graph, 180,  181,  189 

Photographic  gun,   17 

revolver,  17 

Picture  House  at  Briggate,  134 

Palace,  144 ;  effect  on  legiti- 
mate theatre,  326;  British 
Isles,  325;  France,  325; 
Germany,   326;   U.S.A.,   144, 


326 ;  facts  and  figures,  325 
foil. 

plays,  103  foil. ;  develop- 
ment, 109  foil. ;  the  "  Big  Pic- 
ture Play,"  169  loll. ;  educa- 
tional service,  174;  financial 
risk,  177 ;  historical  subjects, 
170;  Kinemacolor,  298; 
Pathe"  firm,  no;  playwright, 
147  ;  plots,  159 ;  popular  sub- 
jects, 176-77 ;  religious  sub- 
jects, 177 ;  staging,  103  foil.  ; 
studio  (see  under  Studio) ; 
"After  Fifty  Years,"  324;  St. 
Francis  of  Assisi,  325 ;  The 
Passion  Play,  106,  169;  "The 
Soldier's  Courtship,"  103 

Pinachrome,   293 

Pinacyanol,  293 

Poch,  Prosper,  142 

Polar  exploration  films,   127 

Political  films,  257 

Popular  science,    190  foil.  ;  films, 

324  ,  •         o 

Portraiture,  cinematographic,  283 

Praxinoscope,  n;  records,  12 

Primary  colours,  290 

"Prince's  Derby,"  117 

"Princess  Nicotine,"  242-253; 
illustration  of  staging,  245 ; 
trick  explained,  244 

Printing,  80;  Newman-Sinclair 
apparatus,  81-82  ;  Williamson 
printer,  82-84 

Projection  :  kinetoscope,  8;  prax- 
inoscope, n;  rate  of  mono- 
chrome films,  6 ;  colour  films, 
292 

Projector,  37,  88  foil.  ;  for 
amateurs,  30Q,  310;  double, 
320,  135;  driving  system,  99; 
intermittent  motion,  38;  rate 
of  projection,  6,  292;  second 
lens,  99  ;  shutter,  94,  95  ;  "  B 
Underwriter,"  100;  Gaumont 
Chrono,  100;  "  Imperator," 
100;  Lumiere,  45 

Provincial  Cinematograph  The- 
atres, Ltd.,  134 

Prozynski,   306 

"Pumpkin  Race"  (film),  217 

Quentin,  daylight  projection,  142 
Quo   Vadis   (film),    175-76 

Racking  bellows,  255 
Rainbow  screen,   142 


INDEX 


339 


Realism,  in  picture  plays,  155 
foil.,  172 

Red  screen,  291;  failure,  292; 
panchromatic  film,  293 ; 
Smith's  experiments,  295 

Religious  institutions  and  cine- 
matography, 317 

Renter,    or   middleman,    178 

Reversal  of  action,  215 

Reynaud's    praxinoscope,    11 

Rheostat  handle,  187 

Rhumkoff  coil,  in  Anschiitz 
tachyscope,  21 

Roller-photography,  26 ;  Blair,  28 

Roosevelt,  T.,  and  cinemato- 
graphy, 128 

Rostand,   picture  plays,   160 

"  Sacking  of  Rome  "  (film),   175 

Safety  shutter,    95-98 

"St.    Francis    of    Assisi "    (film), 

325 

Sample   prints,    176 

"Samson  and  Delilah,"  (film),  177 

Scenery  (see  Realism) 

Scenic  films,  125-129 ;  Polar  ex- 
ploration, 127 ;  Victoria  Falls, 
126 

Scientific  research,  161  foil.  ;  elec- 
tric spark  cinematography, 
265  foil.  ;  explorations,  73, 
127;  medical  science,  316 

Scott,  Capt.  R.,  127 

Screen,  138;  daylight  projection, 
142  ;  in  natural  colour  photo- 
graphy, 291 

Selig,  William  N.,   172 

Selig  organisation,  112;  com- 
pany, 151 ;  fire-rescue  film, 
155 ;  production  of  the  jungle 
play,  172-74;  at  Los  Angeles, 
112;    studio,    112;    wardrobe, 

Sensitised  emulsion,  2;  in  colour 
photography,   292 

Shackleton  expedition,  127 

Shadowgraph  play,  259 

Shutter,  94  ;  automatic  safety,  95  ; 
electric  spark  apparatus 
(illus.),   268,    269 

Siemens  and  Halske,  47 

Silent  Knight,  projector,  101 

Silhouette  trick  films,  259 ;  ad- 
vertisements, 261  ;  in  Amer- 
ica, 259,  263;  "The  Clown 
and   the   Donkev,"   260 


"  Siren,  The  "  (film),  227 

"Ski-runner,"  240-241 

Smith,  Albert,  242 ;  Kinemaeolor, 

295   foil. 
Smith,  F.  Percy,  190;  apparatus, 

195;    experiments,     191-195; 

magic  film,   257 
"Soldier's        Courtship,        The" 

(film),   104 
Soret,   M.   L.,  20 
Sound    effects,     139 ;    production, 

141 
and      movement     combined, 

179  foil. 
South  America,  progress  of  cine- 
matography,  145 
Spool  box,  91 
Sprocket,   use  of,   33 
Stage,  104  (see  also  Studio) 
Stage    properties,    204,    208 ;    for 

"Princess   Nicotine,"   246 
Stanford,    Governor,     interest    in 

Muybridge's  experiments,    15 
Steinheil,  interest  in  Muybridge's 

experiments,    15 
Stencil,  289 

Stereoscopic  shutter  (illus.),  269 
system,     in     electric     spark 

cinematography,   268 
Stern,  inventor,  22 
Stock,  294 
Stop,  of  lens,  199 
and  substitution  action,  212- 

215 

call,  215,   222 

Stop-motion,  201 ;  method  illus- 
trated, 236 

Stop-press  news,  285 

Studio  for  picture  plays,  103  foil.  ; 
American  Mutoscope  Co., 
105;  Edison,  105,  112;  equip- 
ment, 113;  Kinemaeolor, 
108;  Lubin,  112;  Muybridge, 
13 ;  Path6  Freres,  109 ;  Paul, 
104;  Selig,  112;  Vita- 
graph  Co.,  112;  J.  A.  Wil- 
liamson, 107 

Submarine  effects,  240 

Superprinting,  240 

Synchroniser,  182  foil. 

Synchronism,   185 

Tachyscope,  electrical,  20,  21 
"Tale  of  Two  Cities,  A"  (film), 

171 
Talking  machines,   180  foil. 


340 


INDEX 


"Theatrograph,"  39 

"Three  Musketeers"  (film),   175 

Three-roll  film,  106 

Three-screen  cinematography  (tri- 
colour), 291;  cost,  294;  latest 
process,  299 

Toning,  300 

Topical  pictures,  116  foil.;  dan- 
gers, 123;  competition,  118; 
Coronation  of  King  George 
V.,  119;  East  End  battle 
with  anarchists,  124;  Inves- 
titure of  Prince  of  Wales, 
120;   prize-fights,    122 

Transformations,  225 

"Travelling  Bed,  The"  (film), 
209 

Travelling  show,  130 

Tree,  Sir  H.  B.,  picture  play,  174 

Treuw6,   Professor,   130 

"Trial  of  Abraham's  Faith" 
(film),   177 

"Trick"  camera,  222 

Trick  picures,  197  foil. ;  manipu- 
lation of  film  and  camera, 
219;  M.  M<§lies,  197;  R. 
Paul,  198;  miscellaneous, 
228-230,  237;  two  stages, 
246;  wires  and  threads,  238 
foil.;  "Animated  Putty," 
235;  "Automobile  Accident," 
211;  "Boots,"  235;  "The 
Cheese  Mites,"  201;  "The 
Dissolution  of  the  Govern- 
ment," 257;  "Fountain  of 
Youth,"  214;  "The  Haunted 
Curiosity  Shop,"  203;  "The 
Haunted  Hotel,"  242;  "The 
Little  Milliner's  Dream," 
231 ;  "The  Magic  Carpenter's 
Shop,"  238;  "Magic  Knit- 
ting Needles,"  237;  "The 
Magic  Sword,"  199;  "The 
Magnetic  Gentleman,"  210; 
"The  (?)  Motorist,"  203; 
"The  Mysterious  Banquet," 
239;  "Princess  Nicotine," 
243 ;  "  Railway  Collision," 
205;  "The  Siren,"  227; 
"Scene  at  Sea,"  207;  "The 
Travelling  Bed,"  209;  "The 
Workman's  Paradise,"  217 

Tricolour  cinematography  (see 
Three-screen  cinematography) 


Tripod,  for  camera,  72,  73 
"Triumphant  Hero  (The),"  (film), 

1  Lining  fork,  in  Bull  camera,  270 
Two-colour  work  (see  below) 
Two-screen   cinematography,    295 
Tyler-Ernemann         "  Imperator  " 
projector,   100 

"  Uncle   Tom's    Cabin  "    (film), 

156 
Union      Square     Theatre,      New 

York,    144 
Urban,  Charles,  48,  49 
Urban-Joy  anti-firing  device,  96 
Urban-Joy-Harris  Anti-firing  De- 
vice, 97 
Urban    Trading    Company,    125 

Vincent,  John,  106 

Violet-rays,   268 

Violet  screen,  291 

Visual  persistence,  3;  "blinking," 
321;  in  colour  photography, 
292  ;  in  monochrome,  8 

Vitagraph  Company,         112; 

"  Leather  Stocking  "  stories, 
159;  "Tale  of  Two  Cities," 
171 

Vivaphone  (illus.),   182-184 

V-shaped  stop,  199 

War  Office  and  cinemato- 
graphy, 317 

Warwick  Trading  Company,  49 

West,  T.  J.,  130 

Wheel,  cylindrical,  of  electric 
spark  apparatus,  265-267 

"Wheel  of  Life,"  10 

"White  Plague"  pictures,  316 

Williamson,  James  A.,  107  foil.; 
colour  picture,  288;  "A  Big 
Swallow,"  254-257;  "The 
Workman's  Paradise,"  217 

Williamson   printer,   82 

"Workman's  Paradise"  (film), 
217 

Wright,  Wilbur,  flight  film,  72 

X-rays,  and  cinematography,  322 

ZOETROrE,    10 

Zoopraxinoscope,    11 
Zoopraxiscope,   15 


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